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PENMANSHIP BY PRINCIPLE 

PUBLISHED BY 

HARRY P. GREENWALL 

PENMANSHIP INSTRUCTOR 

WESTERN STATE NORMAL SCHOOL 
KALAMAZOO, MICH. 


1921 


HORTON - BEIMER PRESS 
Kalamazoo, 'Mich. 


T^> 



Copyright 1921 
HARRY P. GREENWALL. 


«' 17 By 



8CIA624820 


FOREWORD 


The purpose of this little book is to provide both teacher and 
pupil with something definite to do, give them a chance to think 
before doing it and to supply them with a definite means of 
criticizing their results. 

A very large number of teachers have no special training in 
penmanship and consequently do not know the essentials of 
writing and do not understand the material presented in the 
writing system they are supposed to teach. Because of this, the 
Material seems to them very indefinite. To them there seems no 
definite daily goal or task. The goal and the task, to be sure, are 
there but so far away that the lesson for the day is without interest 
and motivation. 

Penmanship has been treated by many as purely manual art, 
and consequently a very little amount of the child’s mentality 
has been called into action in the penmanship lesson. For this 
reason the proper kind of interest has not been awaked, the most 
vital kind of teaching has not been done, .and the most lasting 
results have not been secured. 

The possibility of being able to judge and criticize a result 
intelligently and properly not only tends to bring about better 
work but to create interest in the same. 

Because of the above reasons the author thinks that this little 
book has the right of existence. 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PART ONE 

History of Writing. 5 

Essentials in Writing....— 6 

Letter Form.....-.— 7 

Position ...x....:.7 

Movement .....*.•.—■ 8 

Speed ..:...—— 8 

Slant .. ! ...... 9 

Alignment ...’......10 

Spacing .*. 10 

Quality of Line...... 11 

Neatness ..... 11 

S;ome reasons why we have poor writing and how to remedy the condition 11 

The object of systematic training in writing in the grades....:.. 13 

Writing, a Growth...„.... 13 

Size of Writing......... 14 

Materials Used in the Grades... 15 

Quality of Work.1.;..... 16 

Amount of Detail.„. k ...1. 16 

Quality of Line. 16 

Movement and Speed........... 17 

Length and Time of Period...'.u. 18 

When Should Instruction in Writing Begin... 18 

Interest and Motivation.,.... 19 

The Blackboard in the Schoolroom... 4 . 20 

Specimens ..„.. » ...... 21 

Scales ....... 22 

Correlation ........ 22 

Handedness . 23 

Drills and Exercises................ : . 24 

Counting ....... 24 

Characteristic Count....._....._.. 25 

A Model and an Individual Style of Penmanship. 27 

How to Study Penmanship. 1 ....... 27 

PART TWO 

Principles upon which Modern Day Penmanship is Built.'. 30 

Explanation of the Lesson Outlines.... 32 

Figures ...,....... 33 

Presentation . 33 

Rural School Adaptation.. 33 

Lesson Outlines........ . . 34 

Small Letters..... 7 .. 35 

Capitals ............ 42 

A List of Words Suitable for Practice... 51 

Figures . 53 

PART THREE 

PLATES 

4 












































PART ONE 


HISTORY OF WRITING 

Writing, or the art of expressing thought by means of graphic symbols, 
is the greatest triumph in the development of the human race. It is also at 
one and the same time the instrument and the recorder of its progress. 
Without writing, history, science, religion and many other great and important 
factors that have been instrumental in bringing about our civilization would 
have been very rudimentary. In fact they would not have developed beyond 
legend, tradition, and superstition. Its acquisition caused a new day to dawn 
for the human race, and its day of usefulness is not yet passed. Although 
ancient, it is by no means an antiquated art. It still functions although it 
has assumed many different forms. 

The symbols employed by many of the nations in our day, although 
springing from the same roots or at least from the same basic ideas, are many 
and varied. The material used to express them also shows a great many 
variations peculiar to the surroundings and the development of the people 
engaged in writing. 

In the beginning, the hand was the servant of the mind aided only by 
a few crude instruments. As civilization progressed the hand and the crude 
instruments were supplanted by other more rapid and ingenious devices. Even 
other characters were devised at times in order to take care of the needs of the 
times and the affairs of certain forms of human enterprise. If sentiment 
were not as strong as it is, it would be possible to create an alphabet more 
easily and rapidly written and just as easily read as the one we now have. 
However, in spite of many changes, writing is still built on the foundations 
laid down by our ancestors, and many of the ancient letter forms are still 
very apparent in our modern script. 

During the centuries, religion, politics, migration, and language have 
all come in contact with the alphabet) and have been served by it. Because of 
these contacts they have all had their influence on the written symbols, 
changing them as the needs demanded. 

Among different peoples in different ages the ability to write has been 
the sign of power, of ability to divine, of intelligence and of gentility, and 
has always given prestige and demanded recognition. Poor writing has 
always demanded an apology. Progress has always rested upon the knowledge 
of letters and most likely will do so for some time to come. Because of the 
fact that mechanical devices have taken over a great deal of the work formerly 
done by hand in order to secure the speed that the age and conditions have 
demanded, we at present time think only of the work and style of letters 
executed with pen and pencil when writing is mentioned. This is a very 
narrow application but it is, however, the phase with which we are greatly 
concerned in education, in business, and in social life today. 

5 



To-day we have the letters which we call the alphabet. They have been 
shaped and' formed in the centuries past. Many nations have given their best 
talents to develop them in order that their nations might prosper. Priests, 
kings, and statesmen have all given their time and effort to master and to better 
them and to hand them on to the common, people that they too, might become 
enlightened. We, the common people of to-day, have inherited them. Both 
for sentimental and practical reasons we have not the right to abuse and 
misuse them as we do. On the other hand, it is not only our duty to teach 
them but to teach them in the most effective manner. To be able to teach 
the youth to make the letter is not enough, but it should be our aim to make 
them in the quickest and easiest manner with as little waste of time and 
energy as possible. This is the aim of every educator who is honestly 
interested educational manner that which has been so carefully guarded in the 
past and upon which our progress is founded. It is possible to write without 
being taught, but the result will be much better if teaching is done. The 
essentials of writing have been classified, and logical teaching is therefore 
possible. 

ESSENTIALS IN WRITING 

As writing developed, certain essentials showed themselves in order of 
their importance. This order, however, has changed somewhat in modern 
penmanship. The first essential and the real cause for writing was and is 
letter form. The original pictographs were decidedly different in form and 
although to us they seem in many cases to be very much alike to the primitive 
man there was a distinction, because he knew the conditions of his times. As 
the pictures became simpler in structure and were made to submit to a uniform 
type structure there was at times a tendency toward similarity in form. When 
this occurred steps were taken to eliminate the sameness. From the same 
form many different letters somewhat similar in structure, but differing onty 
in some distinguishing mark or point derived from time to time in order to 
take care of related sounds that developed in the languages. 

As man’s associations increased and his activities multiplied speed became 
essential. To secure this speed the materials that were used had to be changed 
and the structure of the letters had to be modified still more. At a later 
period in order to provide for this increase in speed there was a linking 
together of the letters with a connective stroke and thus cursive writing 
which allowed an unbroken stroke or movement came into use. The general 
forms of the letters were not changed much but angles and turns were more 
pronounced perhaps, and loops were introduced to some extent. 

Speed is consequently the cause of movement, but movement is the method 
employed in getting it. Speed is the result, movement is the method by 
which it is obtained. 

Spacing and arrangement were at first not considered very essential, and 
up to the time of cursive writing even words and sentences were not spaced. 
Capitals also were not used. In early writing the story was scattered apparently 
all over the material upon which it was written. 

Slant and quality of line were evolved as outgrowths, it seems, of speed. 
Certain characteristic strokes are peculiar to different types of writing, and 


6 



V 


such strokes have been developed and perfected according to the various needs 
These strokes depend largely on the material used. 

Position is also the outgrowth of speed, because to procure ease and 
speed in execution, the proper muscular adjustments must be secured, and thus 
a position that will make these adjustments is necessary. This means position 
of material as well as of body. 

The essentials will be discussed in order of their importance in modern 
writing. 

LETTER FORM 

Writing is simply a method of conveying thought by means of symbols. 
However, these symbols must be understood by others than the writers. The 
larger the group that understands the system of symbols the larger the number 
that can be served by the same. The value of writing depends upon the 
service it renders. Thus it is clear that writing must first of all be legible. 
The characters or letters used must be formed well; that is, well enough to 
carry the desired message without causing erroneous interpretations. 

POSITION 

As stated, position is one of the essentials that must be taken into con¬ 
sideration in judging the quality of penmanship. Due to the various conditions 
under which writing must be done the positions assumed are just as varied. 
Some are good and some are bad, but as a rule we must take into consideration 
things as they exist and the quality of the work must be judged accordingly. 
It would be unnecessary, useless and indeed impossible to describe the many 
positions that might be assumed and the quality of work that might be expected 
in each case. However, it will be necessary to describe the position that ought 
to be assumed under ideal conditions. 

Head. The head should not be allowed to drop to one side. 

Eyes. The eyes should be from twelve to fifteen inches away from the 
paper. 

Arms. The arms should rest on the large cushioned muscles just in 
front of the elbows. 

Elbows. Both elbows should rest on the edge of the desk or just off 
the edge. 

Wrist. The wrist should be held rather flat and high but not so high 
as to create fatigue. 

Hands. The writing hand should rest on the last two fingers, either on 
the knuckles or on the nails. The first finger should be on top of the pen, 
the second finger at the right side and the thumb on the opposite side of the 
pen. The four fingers should be together and the last three curved under¬ 
neath but they should not be gripped. The hand should be half open. 

The left hand should take care of the paper when shifting is necessary. 
When writing at the top of the paper the left hand should be at the bottom of 
the paper and when writing at the bottom the reverse should take place. 
With left-handed people directions for the right and left hands should be 
reversed. 


7 




Pen. The point of the pen or pencil should be from an inch to an inch and 
a half from the tip of the first finger. The nibs should touch the paper at an 
angle of about forty-five degrees. 

Penholder. The penholder should point over the shoulder of the writing 
arm or at least along the forearm of the writing arm. It should cross very 
near the knuckle nearest the palm of the hand. This, of course, depends upon 
the-anatomy of the person writing and will adjust itself if the pen touches 
the paper at the right angle. 

Paper. The paper should be placed in front of the person. The lower 
edge of the paper should form an angle of about thirty degrees with the lower 
edge of the desk. 

Feet. The feet should be flat on the floor just a trifle apart. They 
should by no means be allowed to dangle. The left foot may be a little in 
advance of the right. 

The biggest essential to be considered, at all times in securing the position 
is health. Nerves, muscles, and blood vessels should be relaxed and free. 

MOVEMENT 

Movement in writing should be the result of the endeavor to carry out 
a mental image. It is the physical expression of a mental concept. Movement 
does not mean speed; it is, however, the base upon which speed is built. The 
mark or marks produced on paper ought to be the picture of the motion set 
into action by the mental image modified by the hampering tendencies of 
physical conditions. Right here is the dificult place of bridging from the 
mental to the physical. In order to secure the physical requisites of movement 
the position as described under the paragraph entitled “Position” is necessafy. 
To some extent movement is also dependent upon speed in that a certain 
momentum must exist. 

Arm movement means that the larger share of the work is done by the 
larger muscles of the shoulder and upper arm. The fingers hold the pen but 
they do not propel it. It is often the case that the fingers are not moved but 
in order to refrain from being moved are gripped excessively. This is entirely 
wrong. Finger movement is far better than such a position. The bad feature 
about finger movement and the one that makes it tiresome and undesirable 
is that the fingers must adjust themselves every two or three letters. When 
any speed whatever is desired letter forms, slant, spacing, and quality of 
line all deteriorate if finger movement is used to excess. 

SPEED 

As writing grew up when the world was not rushing at the breakneck 
speed in which we now find ourselves, it was necessary to emphasize the one 
essential only, namely legibility. Now, however, it has been forced to take 
or not only speed but a great deal of speed in order to keep up with the 
apparent pace of the world. In the fulfilment of time the printing press, 
shorthand, and the typewriter have each stepped in to take care of the required 
speed and have not only satisfied the speed demands but have narrowed down 
decidly the realm of writing in general. To some people this constant 


8 



narrowing down seems to be a prophetic indication of the final abolition of 
writing as a general means of graphic expression. This, however, is a hasty 
conclusion, but the real conclusion that may be drawn is that in each event 
writing has been given a new chance to really emphasize its real mission, 
legibility. 

Although this world is a busy place and speed is_ required, there is no 
reason to believe that everybody is actually busy. Business may be busy but 
business has its business appliances in most cases and the actual writing done 
by the ordinary man need not be done at a breakneck speed. After all is said 
and done the impartial person comes to the conclusion that writing is for the 
sake of legibility first of all, and that the demands for speed can be taken 
care of by means that are already at hand. The ordinary man needs speed 
in writing to the same extent that he possesses speed in his spoken language. 
Where the pen can not follow why develop speed? To say that speed is not 
needed is absurb, but to develop it from the very start as the only essential 
is equally absurd. Rather than develop speed the writer’s muscular relations 
ought to be established and emphasized. Speed is the outgrowth of the proper 
muscular relations. Movement and speed must not be confused. Before speed 
can be developed, movement must be developed, and movement depends upon 
letter form and position. It is quite essential that the direction must be 
established before the vehicle is set in motion. A great deal cannot be gained 
by simply setting the instrument into action as action in itself is not produc¬ 
tive of beneficial results. It is contrary to the laws of nature and of mind 
to simply set matter in motion. A sense of direction, perhaps not perfect at 
first, but as perfect as the mentality of the person allows linked up with the 
proper muscular adjustment ought to be the only fundemental dwelt upon in 
learning to write. 

We should teach for the purpose of preparing the child to meet the 
demands of life later on. The first grader and even the sixth grader are not 
asked ordinarily to carry on the business of the world, why then should we 
we be preparing him in those grades to meet such demands? We are not 
all preparing for the same work in life and the writing that we need is 
writing that will meet the demands of the particular circumstances and sphere 
of life in which we find ourselves. 

SLANT 

Slant in writing is not an absolute essential. It may be the expression of 
the personal character and inclination of the individual, but it is not a charac¬ 
teristic that penmanship must possess in order to be legible or well done. The 
quality of writing cannot be established by its slant because of the fact that as 
individuals differ, slant differs also It is difficult to require one slant from all, 
as the personality of the writer enters in here very strongly. It is not even to 
be expected that slant writing is the best writing for every individual. It seems, 
however, that the forward slant is better than the vertical and backhand for 
the majority of people and for this reason ought to be required in the model 
hand. Although the amount of slant cannot be definitely stated, if it is too great 
it ought to be discouraged. The ideal slant ought to be about from twenty-two 


9 


to thirty degrees from the vertical. This is the prevalent slant in model writing 
for copying purposes but the individual ought to be allowed self expression in 
this phase of the art. That nerves and physical make-up and temprament play a 
great part in writing must not be ignored and they find expression to some ex¬ 
tent in the individual slant. 

The down stroke is always straight in writing and always determines the 
slant. Up strokes or connective strokes, as a rule, have twice as much 
slant as the down strokes. A good rule to follow is tq suggest that the down 
stroke be drawn toward the middle of the body when the position is right. 
Excessive slant or lack of slant may be remedied by shifting the position of the 
paper. The smaller the angle that the lower edge of the paper forms with the 
lower edge of the desk the less slant there will be in the writing. 

ALIGNMENT 

Alignment deals with the height of letters. There are several levels both 
above and below the line. The unit of measure in letter height is the minimum 
group or group A. 

Group A consists of small letters, i, u, w, e, n, m, a, o, and c. In adult 
writing this group is one third of a space high. 

Group B consists of r and s which are just a trifle taller than those of the 
minimum group. 

Group C consists of small letters t and p, which are two thirds of a 
space tall. The letter p forms a subdivision of this group in that it extends one 
third of a space below the line and yet is not a loop letter. 

Group D consists of small letters 1, b, h, and k which are a full space above 
the line. 

Group E consists of loop letters below the line; j, y, g, q, and z. These 
letters are one third of a space above the line and two thirds of a space below. 

Group F consists only of letter f. This letter extends one space above the 
line and two thirds below. 

Group G consists of all capitals. Capitals are one space above the line. 
This group also has a subdivision to which belong all the letters that extend 
below the line. Such letters extend two thirds of a space below. 

It must be understood that in actual work the alignment may vary consid 
erably. The different groups may vary, that is y the capitals may be taller than 
the loop letters. The loop letters may be no taller than t and d and the loop 
letters below the line may be either shortened or 1 lengthened. Within a group, 
however, there should be no variations. 

SPACING 

Spacing also is an essential which may show the individual expression. It 
compares very well with the stride in a person’s walk. In formal writing 
as in military drill the stride may be unified but in actual writing this is not 
to be expected. The amount of space alloted to the writing to be done in 
most case determines the amount of spacing that should occur in the 
writing especially if the amount of space is small. Writing that is too compact 
or too extended is undesirable. The compact style oftens causes confusion and 
eye strain while the extended style cannot be grasped by the eye at one single 

10 



glance. Between these extremes there are many degrees of spacing from which 
to choose. At all times spacing ought to be uniform. There are in every written 
page four kinds of spacing that ought to bd taken into consideration, and each 
successive one is a trifle wider than the one mentioned before it. They are as 
follows: spacing in letters, that is, between the different component principles, 
spacing between letters, spacing between words, and spacing between sentences. 

Component principles of letters should always be joined with angles, that 
is, the parts should form a point where they join. Very little retracing is done. 
The rounding parts of n and m and the like are individual principles or may be 
considered as such and are not principals three and one joined. Letters should 
always be joined with turns or rounded joinings. The final up stroke of a 
word is always joined with a turn. 

QUALITY OF LINE 

Early in the development of the alphabet there was an attempt to systema¬ 
tize the kind and quality of the stroke used. Every style of writing in use by 
different nations has its own particular quality and kind of stroke which in 
many cases is due to the material used. In our modern style of penmanship 
a definite uniform quality of line has been evolved and is very essential for 
two reasons. First it is easier to read when the quality is regular and secondly 
it is more easily written as there is no difference in pressure. The line should 
be free and flowing and without kinks. To secure this a good movement must 
be mastered. Letters that are drawn will not produce the right quality, and 
excessive finger movement also will not produce it. 

NEATNESS 

Concerning neatness it suffices to say that neatness is almost next to per¬ 
fection Well formed letters poorly arranged and on an untidy paper are in¬ 
sufficient and undesirable. The composite mass as well as the individual letter 
must also present a clean and orderly appearance. 

SOME REASONS WHY WE HAVE POOR WRITING 
AND HOW TO REMEDY THE CONDITION 

The reasons we have poor writing are too numerous to mention. There are, 
however, a few that are so very apparent that any person at all interested in 
penmanship will be able to enumerate them at a moments notice. They are as 
follows: 

Failure on the part of the teachers to appreciate the value of good writing 
and to point out its importance to the pupils. This condition exists more often 
with the teacher who has specialized in some particular subject, perhaps pen¬ 
manship is not the only subject ingored by such a teacher. The attitude assu¬ 
med by many teachers by no means encourages penmanship. On the other hand, 
their attitude and the style of writing they have and use, create in the pupil 
the feeling that he can get along without penmanship. The pupil notices that 
other people have made a success of life, or at least what he calls a success, 
without being able to write well and why shouldn’t he ?. 


11 


Failure to give any training whatever to the child during the habit forming 
period of his life. In later years when writing is really needed there is no 
structure upon which to build and the writing that the person does possess goes 
from poor to worse. 

Failure to systematize the work in penmanship in the school system so 
that when the pupil arrives at the end of the seventh or eighth grade he will 
have a fair style of penmanship instead of a style that is a composite of many. 
Quite often fads and commercial interests are the cause for changes in the 
school system irrespective of the effect on the child. In many cases the change 
from one system to another has been affected too late in the child’s develop¬ 
ment and the style that he. possesses, although perhaps not the best is broken up 
in the seventh or eighth grade and the pupil is left no style whatever. 

We have now come to the point it seems where there is very little difference 
in the style of letters taught as has been the case in the past. The main differ¬ 
ence is in the method used to get the best work from the child. There are, 
however, some differences as to what essentials are the proper ones to em¬ 
phasize. 

Very little poor writing is due to inability on the part of the student to 
learn to write, or to the fact that his writing has been ruined after having 
finished school. If writing has fallen below standard but was properly taught 
in the first place it should quickly come back when conditions are good and 
favorable for good writing. 

In order to have good writing the first essential is that a definite program 
be laid down for the child to follow from grade to grade in harmony with his 
growth and development. The second requisite is that the attitude of those 
dealing with the guidance of the youth be favorable toward penmanship. This 
is not to be a superficial but an actual interest in penmanship and the welfare 
of the child in this line of endeavor. 

The third requisite is the ability on the part of the teachers to write well. 
If the teacher cannot write well it is his duty to know the real essentials of 
writing so that he can demand the right kind of penmanship in written work. 
It is, however, very essential that the teacher write well because the work the 
pupils see will have a greater influence than all the teaching and preaching the 
teacher can do. 

There is no need of making a greater ado about penmanship than about 
any other common branch. Give it its proper attention and enough has been 
done. With the proper kind of text, teachers, and enthusiasm on the part of 
the teachers and superintendent any superintendent should be able to handle 
the penmanship situation just as well as he handles the situation in reading, 
spelling, arithmetic, and geography without the aid of some outside help. 

Penmanship should be placed on an educational basis and not on a com¬ 
mercial one. By all means, however, it should not be untaught. The type¬ 
writer has not as yet supplanted the hand, the pen and the pencil. Even if 
the day will come when such will be the case, there still will be the need of 
siginature. writing, and experts say it is harder to forge a well written sig¬ 
nature than it is a poorly written one. 


12 






THE OBJECT OF SYSTEMATIC TRAINING 
IN WRITING IN THE GRADES 


The purpose then of systematic training in writing in the grades as men¬ 
tioned previously is to prepare the child in a manner in accordance with the 
laws of growth and development to write a free, easy, legible, and stabilized 
hand at the end of the seventh or eighth grade. To aim to secure this per¬ 
fected style before this time and to equip the child with a handwriting that will 
fit into the demands of adult business work is not wise. We do not aim to do 
this in other branches nor are we willing to place our stamp of completion on 
any product produced below the seventh or eighth grades. Why then should we 
do so in writing? Why should we try to force adult standards upon the pupil 
when such a procedure is contrary to laws of growth even though the child 
appears able to do what is required? Why try to commercialize writing to 
that extent? The writing in the grades should be systemtized so that the de¬ 
velopment from year to year isi gradual and built on physiological, and psycho¬ 
logical basis and conditions. Even within a grade there are five years of growth 
prevalent and this too should be considered when demands are made. There 
are matters more vital to child life than penmanship. The demands that the 
child may make of the teacher and of the work at large for the sake of his own 
development are greater by far than the demands that the teacher and the 
world may put on him in the lower grades, especially when it comes to penman¬ 
ship. The demands that the child makes must come first and foremost. The 
work he does in the lower grades should only be stepping stones for the future 
and not completion itself. 

By presenting the subject in an orderly fashion the waste of time both oti 
the part of the teacher and the pupil will be minimized. Nothing will have to 
be unlearned from year to year. No pet notions will then be taught and there 
will be a constant development during the time that the child is in the grades. 
During this period he is in the habit forming age, and naturally any subject 
that is to be used as a means of expression in later years should be treated in 
a systematic and logical manner in the formative period. 

WRITING A GROWTH 

Writing should, by all means, be treated as a growth that develops with the 
child from year to year. It has and is the constant exort of our educators to 
outline the work in other branches to fit the various grades, and the same care 
ougth to be taken in penmanship. It is well to know both the child and the 
subject in preparing a course in penmanship. To be skillful in penmanship is 
not enough. Most of the good penman have developed their good penmanship 
in after years and in doing so have spent much time and effort. They done it 
in a mature way and they have thought the same methods would apply in the 
.case of the child, and without much insight into the child’s possibilities have 
prepared the course for the child from their own standpoint. They have also 
set their own standards as the ultimate standards for the child. 

Another big difficulty in teaching writing is that the person who under¬ 
stands the child has not done enough to solve the problem of school penman¬ 
ship. These two extremes ought to meet in order to outline the work for the 


13 



school rooms so that the growth and development would be given due consider¬ 
ation. A program outlined in such a way would make the proper demands in 
each grade and also give definite methods and instructions how to teach the work 
according to the child’s development. 

In graduating the following essentials should be considered: 

Size of work. 

Quality of work. 

Amount of detail. 

Quality of line. 

Movement and speed. 

Materials used. 

Length and time of period. 

SIZE OF WRITING 

The size of the paper, the purpose for which the writing is intended, and 
the amount of writing to be done are the factors that will determine the size 
of the writing. In the school room the age of the pupil is also a very important 
factor to be considered. With many persons it does not matter how generous 
the supply of space is they will still write small and again others will write 
large even though the space is very inadequate. Both styles may be good and 
legible. Extremes, of course, are not desired and in teaching should not be 
used nor encouraged. Uniformity should be sought in order to avoid extremes 
and to facilitate the teaching of the subject. When writing on ruled paper 
is begun it is necessary to use only either or H i nc h ruled paper. This size 
will be large enough for the lower grades and small enough for the upper 
grades. The paper best suited for the lessons to follow ought to be from seven 
to eight inches wide. It will be more convenient to use the same kind of paper 
throughtout the grades. 

The and H i nc h spaces will be used as the standard units of measure. 
If necessary the term unit will be used to designate 1-3 of a space. 

The writing used in the school grades may be divided into four groups 
or divisions according to grades or groups of grades. There is, of course,, no 
set period when the actual change takes place in a pupils informal writing 
but in the formal writing lesson this may be done. Of course, the child will 
be expected to follow up this instruction in his informal writing as soon as 
possible and to the extent that his individuality will allow. It will in fact be 
understood that people will always use different sizes in spite of their instruction. 

Group (1.) consists of the first grade (if writing is taught there,) the 
second grade and the early part of the third grade where the transition to 
group (2.) should be made. 

Group (2.) consists of the third and fourth grades and perhaps the fifth. 
The transition to group (3) should be begun in the latter part of the fourth 
grade or in the early part of the fifth grade. 

Group (3.) consists of grade sixth and up. 

Group (4.) consists of the upper grades especially jW here a more individual 
size may be chosen. Here the size may be smaller and the size mentioned under 
alignment need not be followed strictly. 


14 







The alignment of the different letters according to these four groups will 
be as fol'ows: 

Group (1) 

The letters in group A. under alignment will be one space tall. 

Those in group B. will be just a trifle taller than those in group A. 

Those in group C. will be two spaces tall except “p” which is one space 
below the line also. 

Group D will be two spaces tall. 

Group E. will be one space above and one space below. 

Group F. will be two spaces above and one space below. 

Group G. or the capitals will be two spaces above the line. The loop letters 
that extend below are one space below the line. 

Group (2.) 

Group A becomes one half a space tall. 

Group B. Becomes just a trifle taller than one half a space. 

Group D. becomes one space above. 

Group E. becomes one space above and from one-half to two-thirds of a 
space below. 

Group F. becomes one space above and one-half to two-thirds of a space 
below. 

Group G. becomes one space above and the loop letters extend from one- 
liaif to two-thirds of a space below. 

Group (3.) 

Group A. is one-third of a space above the line. 

Group B. is just a trifle taller than one-third of a space. 

Group C. is two-thirds of a space above the line and the letter “p” is one- 
ihird of a space below. 

Group D. is one space. 

Group E. is one-third of a space above and two-thirds of a space below. 

Group F. is one space above and two-thirds of a space below. 

Group G. is one space above and two-thirds of a space below. 

Group (4.) 

All the letters are reduced in size but the proportions of group (3) are 
kept. The minimum letters become about one-fourth of a space. 

MATERIALS USED IN THE GRADES. 

Schoolroom material is by all means not always the best nor the kind 
best suited for the intended purpose. It is impossible to secure it many 
times. Books on theory may advocate certain materials and hold up the ideal. 
This is the proper thing for them to do; but the ordinary school room equip¬ 
ment does not have it, and the teacher must do the best he can to get results 
that are in accord. Therefore the best advice to a teacher is to know what 
he ought to have, demand it, and, if it is impossible to get it to do the best 
possible under the conditions and judge results accordingly. 

The material should vary according to the grade. The paper in order to 


15 



graduate the work from grade to grade need not be ruled in different widths 
nor of different sizes. It is better by far and, cheaper to have it of the same 
size and width of spacing. 

The grades that use pen and ink, of course, need a little better quality of 
paper than those that use pencil. In the first, second, and even third grades a 
large soft pencil should be used. Too soft a pencil is not advisable but rather 
too soft than too hard is advisable as a hard pencil encourages finger movement, 
it almost demands it. 

The use of pen and ink should be begun in the fourth grade. Earlier than 
the latter half of the third grade should not be attempted. Children in the 
lower grades find it quite a task to keep their papers neat when ink is used. 
The pen is too fine an instrument for the child at that age to use. 

,The grip of the penholder should be made of rubber, wood, or cork. A 
metal grip is not good because it is generaly too small and encourages gripping. 
The holder should be large enough to be held comfortably, but as hands differ 
it is hard to give a definite rule. 

The steel pen should not be too flexible. The lower grades perhaps should 
use a coarser pen than the upper grades. Do not allow fountain pens or stub 
pens. 

The ink should be easy flowing and blue or black in color. By corking the 
well after each lesson dust and dirt will be kept out and the ink wil thus re¬ 
main in fairly good condition. 

If writing is done in the first grade it should be done on the blackboard, 
but if paper work must be done, let it be done on large unruled paper. The 
paper may be creased in order to produce guiding lines. The size of the 
fold may in this manner be regulated and varied as the teacher sees fit. 

QUALITY OF WORK 


AMOUNT OF DETAIL. 

The more detail there is in writing the more formal it becomes. The 
purpose is not to teach formal writing in the grades, but yet enough attention 
shoud be given to detail so that writing will not deteriorate. Detail naturally 
encourages letter form and also slower movement, but as letter form is essential 
the more the detail the more perfect the letters. In formal writing detail should 
be emphasized enough so that when informal writing is done the necessary 
details will occur without conscious effort. 

The lower the grade the less the detail in every branch taught. In writing, 
in order to teach better form it is necessary to teach detail, but the difficulty is 
overcome by enlarging the work and thus avoiding intricate combinations. 
Making the work large not only overcome finger movement but also helps the 
pupil to see the desired form. 

QUALITY OF LINE 

The quality of line, of course, depends on the material used. A soft pencil 
makes a heavy mark as does a course pen and black ink. A hard pencil makes 
a light line and a fine pen and a light ink make a fine line . The movement 
also regulates the quality of line. A light line of even pressure and without 


16 


kinks should always be, sought in all grades. Such work will indicate a good 
movement. Too light a line should not be demanded. It is hard to read; is 
not used in actual writing; and the production thereof is hard on the pupils 
physical make up. 

The paper also has its influence on the quality of the line. Smooth paper 
tends to create a fine line while rough paper produces a coarser line. 

The personal formula of the writer also effects the line, but in every case 
the ideal should be sought and encouraged irrespective of the material. Results 
should be judged according to the circumstances. 

MOVEMENT AND SPEED 

Movement is a development and speed develops only in proportion to the 
movement. Finger movenent writing by some people can be done very rapidly 
without a great deal of fatigue. This, however, is not the universal rule. The 
larger the mucle the less the fatigue but the larger the mucle the more training 
necessary to produce skill in minute details. A happy combination is there¬ 
fore perhaps the ideal. To procure this condition, however, it seems necessary 
to emphasize arm movement because of the fact that the fingers become active 
without being called into action. Arm movement can be overdone. If move¬ 
ment alone is emphaisized the letters will in time become just as illegible as 
those produced by finger movement. 

It should be the teacher’s duty from the very beginning to encourage good 
movement and good movement of the larger muscles especially. By training 
the larger muscles in the lower grades there is less danger of gripping and 
cramping. An easy movement is also a time saver. 

Movement depends upon position and the position as elsewhere described 
should be demanded. In the lower grades the whole arm should slide on the 
cushioned muscle in the forearm and on the last two fingers The whole arm 
thus will go through the movement caused by the shape of the letter. At the 
end of the fourth grade there should be transition to the use of smaller mucles. 
From here on the arm should remain practically stationary at the elbow and 
only the forearm be moved. 

The amount of speed that is required in any particular grade varies. Any 
well known scale as mentioned elsewhere will give the standard speed. The 
standard of these scales is perhaps at a little high as it takes into consideration 
only specimen work and not the daily work of the pupil which is perhaps a 
trifle slower. The unit of time used in measuring is a minute during which 
time a certain number of letters can be produced according to the grade. 
Letters, of course, vary in size and intricacy, and consequently some demand 
more time than others. In measuring the number of words written per minute 
the numbers of letters are divided by five, (five letters is considered the 
average length of a word). If the pupil writes for more than one minute 
the total number of letters should be divided by the number of minutes. 

The average number of letters to be written per minute is as follows: in 
the first grade from 20 to 30; in the second grade from 30 to 35; in the third 
grade from 40 to 50; in the fourth grade from 50 to 60; in the fifth grade 
from 60 to 70; in the sixth grade from 70 to 75; in the seventh grade from 
72 to 76; and in the eighth grade from 76 to 80. 


17 


LENGHT AND TIME OF PERIOD 

Nowhere, perhaps, more than in the school room is the day too short and 
the amount of work to be done so stupendous. Every subject demands its 
rights and wants its quota of time. It is only the efficient teacher who can 
make the minutes count that can in any small way meet the situation properly. 
It is not always the length of the period, however, that counts but rather the 
kind of subject matter that is presented and the manner in which it is presented. 
The manner in which a pupil responds and reacts should also be a factor in 
judging what the length of the period should be. Too long a period in penman¬ 
ship often does more harm than it does good. Shorter periods at more fre¬ 
quent intervals are better than longer periods. Three periods a week at least 
should be devoted to formal penmanship practice. 

In the lower grades from ten to fifteen minutes of actual practice are 
enough. In the upper grades the period may be lengthened to twenty minutes 
or perhaps twenty-five at the most. As writing is not necessarily a content 
subject it is not wise to continue beyond twenty-five minutes. Physical, fatigue 
and mental unrest are liable to set in and then in many cases all that has been 
gained will be lost. The distribution of paper and other materials should not 
be counted in the allotted time. Such details and routine should be reduced 
to the minimum. 

The best time of the day for penmanship is just before intermission, pre¬ 
ferably in the morning. All subjects, however, clamor for the best period but 
in spite of this fact writing should not be forced into the poorest period of 
the day always. So often the last period of the day is devoted to penmanship 
and then if anything else comes up that seems a little more important writing 
is absolutely ignored. It is not wise to place penmanship immediately after 
strenuous excercise. It is also poor policy to preceed the writing class with a 
class in which the pupil is required to sit still for a long period of time. Two 
or three calesthenic movements before writing class are beneficial and restful 
if the pupils have been mentally active and physically quiet for a longer period 
of time. 


WHEN SHOULD INSTRUCTION IN WRITING BEGIN? 

In spite of the fact that parents and penmanship enthusiats demand that 
the writing process should be begun in the first grade and even in the kinder¬ 
garten, it is nevertheless wise from the physiological and psychological point 
of view not to begin as early as that. It is perhaps a time honored custom for 
the youngster to be able to write his name even in the first few weeks of the 
first year in school. If the child' wishes to write his name or perhaps the date 
and the words “mother” and “father” the right kind of instruction should be 
given but the idea that he should be forced to develop the art in the first grade 
is erroneous. 

There are other instincts and talents that develop and need attention during 
these early days before writing and the time that is devoted to penmanship 
could be spent to more advantage on these. Often something else less taxing 
and more suited to the age could be taught. The anatomy of the child will 
be better suited and prepared for the development c5f writing later on. The 


18 


small amount of writing done in the first grade (and the modern school is 
wisely demanding less and less each year) if writing" is not forced upon the 
pupil, will not harm his possibilities for future development even if he remain 
untaught. The real formative period in writing has hardly begun as early as., 
the kindergarten and the first grade. There will really be very little to unlearn 
if the child is untaught until he reaches the second grade The incidental in¬ 
structions received will be of little consequence. 

In the mental and social development of the human race, writing did not 
hold the first' place but developed much later than many of the other talents. 
In the mental and social development of the child of to-day the same will hold 
true. In the physical development of the child also the execution of details 
and smaller movements and of holding small instruments is out of place. Manv 
centuries elapsed before the human hand became skillful enough in the use 
of the fine instruments used in writing. The child will use the sma’ler muscles 
because of the small instrument and the small work to be done but in the natural 
unrestricted state he will as a rule very seldom deal with small objects, and 
the product of his efforts will show very little detail. The ability to demon¬ 
strate that the child can perform the certain activities that the teacher exacts 
of him is no proof whatsoever that they should be required of him. The rule 
for making demands in teaching ought to depend upon the development of the 
child rather than upon his ability to perform, if forced to do so. 

INTEREST AND MOTIVATION 

In order to insure results the learner must be interested. If the learner 
himself, especially in the lower grades, is not interested it is the teacher’s 
duty and privilege to create an interest by proper presentation of the lesron. 
First of all, the teacher himself must be inspired. Inspiration on the part of 
the teacher is gained by knowledge of both child and subject. The best and 
most lasting service that we as leaders often render is to inspire. In penman¬ 
ship the teacher’s own writing should be inspiring. Writing is perhaps one 
of the most uninteresting subjects to teach unless the teacher himself is enthusi¬ 
astic over the subject. Often times when the teacher is enthusiastic the time 
and effort alloted to the subject are increased to a disproportionate amount, 
and other branches are neglected. The grades are not the place to train experts 
in any branch. 

Intrinsically in every subject there ought to be some quality that, if prop¬ 
erly developed and presented, will appeal to the child’s several instincts and 
create an interest and a desire to progress. There are, in the study of penman¬ 
ship, qualities that create interest and the teacher who is wide-awake and who 
wishes to succeed is sure to find them. It is often much easier, however, to 
revert, to externel motives such as buttons, certificates and material awards. 
There is no fault to be found with this method, but would it not be better if 
something within the subject itself could be made so interesting and inspiring 
that the pupil would be motivated because of the subject itself. Just a little 
thougnt and effort on the part of the teacher will solve the problem of motiva¬ 
tion and make the writing class a pleasure. 

Writing, though artificial from the very beginning, has many interesting 
phases for the child, and even its artificiality can be made a means of motivation. 


19 


It has many real connections and associations with the life and the presentation 
of a writing lesson should make use of all possible associations. 

Much poor writing, it seems, is due to lack of training on the part of the 
pupil because of the fact that the teacher has been unwilling to teach the subject 
for the simple reason that he does not know how to make it interesting. The 
methods and schemes available in teaching writing are numerous and any catalog 
that might be given here must be incomplete, for the simple reason that the 
individual teacher will have ideas of his own. The following suggestions, 
however, may be helpful; the use of the blackboard, exhibits, rotation of papers, 
exchange of papers with other classes or schools, races and games of various 
kinds, characteristic counting, letter building, use of the piano and victrola, 
grading the work on some standard scale and little trips into history of writing. 

The ultimate aim of good writing must, however, always be clearly and 
firmly held in the minds of teacher and pupil. Definite aims in form, move¬ 
ment, position, and speed, etc. should always be the object in view. The teacher 
should not be driven to absurd methods of motivation simply for the sake of 
motivation itself and entertainment. There is a certain amount of drudgery 
to writing and it cannot be escaped entirely. The ability on the part of the 
teacher to appreciate good writing, even though not an expert, and the ability 
to see in penmanship a subj ect that is not only a motor activity but one that 
may be developed by appealing to the mentality and intelligence of the child 
as well as to his actual skill are the prime factors in motivation. 

THE BLACKBOARD IN THE SCHOOLROOM. 

A schoolroom without a blackboard would be something quite out of the 
ordinary and the teacher as well as the pupils would find it quite troublesome 
if such were the case. In spite of the fact that the blackboard is indespensable 
it is not used as it ought to be used nor to its fullest extent in the average 
schoolroom. 

The teacher through the medium of the blackboard has a very forceful 
means of teaching writing. The blackboard not only serves as the place where 
writing may be explained and demonstrated during the formal writing lesson 
but it is a place where writing that is upon it may serve as a silent influence 
during every minute of the school day. The writing upon the blackboard should 
always be of good quality. The teacher who does not place good writing 
upon the board or who does not demand good writing to be placed there by 
others who have occasion to use it may do his utmost in other ways to teach pen¬ 
manship but will yet fall short of getting the best results. The blackboard 
should always serve as an inspiration. A clean blackboard does not teach bad 
habits consequently does not encourage poor writing. 

On the part of the pupil no better place can be found to secure results 
when other work on paper has failed. It is here that the details are enlarged 
enough to be easily mastered. The difficulties, too, of material are not so many 
and minute. The improvement is about three times as rapid, and this fact acts 
as a stimulus to the learner. Seeing that Hk is able to produce on the black¬ 
board and having learned certain facts about the exercise whatever it may 
be, he feels assured that he can produce it on the paper as well. 

The blackboard should be used often by the learner, it matters not what 


20 


the age. However, in the case of the first grader it is the only place where 
writing should be done. The beginner should not be forced to do small work 
nor to use instruments as small as the pen and pencil and the ordinary sized 
paper. 

In working at the blackboard it is well toi rule off spaces similar to those 
on paper, these lines should be from two to four inches apart. The lower the 
grade the wider the space. Although the little beginner should be given freedom 
it does no harm to set certain boundaries for him. Law and order are essential 
in writing as well as in every other line' of endeavor. 

The position at the blackboard should be such that the child’s left side is 
turned a trifle toward the board. He should stand about his own arm’s length 
away from the board. All erasing should be done with the left hand, and the 
eraser should be held in the left hand behind the back ip a comfortable position. 
Practice should be done on the eye level. 

Only a half a stick of chalk should be employed and the broken end of 
the same should be used. The chalk should be rotated occasionally in order 
■' keep it from becoming pointed. The thumb should be placed on one side 
f the chalk and as many fingers as possible on the other side. This position 
Ids true for the first grade. In the upper grades, however, the chalk should 
H" held by the first and second fingers and the thumb and point toward the 
■ • ‘ lie of the hand. 

By all means use the blackboard often and well. Let it be a silent partner 
; i an asset. Let it be inspirational and decorative as well as a practical part 

.he schoolroom equipment. t 

SPECIMENS. 

It is a good plan to take or rather prepare specimens at certain stated 
-intervals. At the beginning of the school year, in December, in March, and 
t the close of the year are very good times to prepare the same for preser¬ 
vation. It might be desirable in some cases for the sake of finding out what 
kind of work is really being done to prepare them at other times also. These 
specimens for preservation should be kept from year to year in some folder 
prepared for that purpose. The specimens should be brought out each time 
a new specimen is added for the sake of comparison. They should be placed 
in chronological order. The matter written on these specimens should include 
the figures and as large a number of capitals as possible besides the small 
letters. The grade, and the name of the child should also appear. Essentially 
the same material should be written each time in order to make comparison 
an easier task. It is a good policy to use the wording of one of the standard 
scales as subject matter for the same, following the directions given. In this 
manner a scientific basis for judging improvement can be assured. This method 
of preparing a specimen also affords a means of giving a standing at the end of 
the term* that is nearly perfect, pedagogically and psychologically, as possible. 

The children enjoy these specimens and they act as stimuli for better 
work. It is also an encouragement for the teacher and a means by which the 
teacher can really know what is being accomplished and how the work com¬ 
pares with work done in other grades and schools and whether or not the 
child is being prepared properly for the work of the next grade. 


21 


SCALES. 


There are on the market several different scales which are self-explana¬ 
tory, and consquently it is unnecessary to describe them. The “Ayers” Gettys¬ 
burg edition, the “Thorndike” and the “Freeman” scales are the best known: 

The use of the scale is beneficial in that it helps to standardize and grad¬ 
uate the work of teaching in a school system and also to set a graded standard 
for marking. The teacher can then, too, give a scientific reason for marks 
given on the report card. It also informs the teacher whether or not his work 
is up to par and in what phase or,essential it is falling below. In any subject, 
whatever, it is not wise to over-train or continue devoting time when the 
objective has been gained and there are other things to do, and a scale will 
help the teacher in finding out when the standard of a certain grade has been 
reached. There are those who believe that the pupil should be excused from 
any subject when he has attained the standard of his grade and allowed to 
devote his time and energy on something else, at least until he shows signs 
of failure to measure up to the standard. If this is done a great deal of judg¬ 
ment must be used. 

The pupil also can use the scale for himself by comparing his writing 
with it and in this manner find out for himself where he is weak and then 
practice accordingly. It also trains the pupil in judging the good and bad; 
points in hip own writing and makes him his own critic. When a child has 
become his own critic results are sure to follow because then motivation comes 
from within and not from outside sources. 

If possible a scale should be posted^in each room easily accessible to the 
child. Exercises in using the scale should be given so that it will be properly 
understood by the pupils. 

CORRELATION 

The real test of writing is its correlation with other subjects. Writing 
that does not carry over into the written work done in other subjects is of 
very little value. There must be a distinction made, however, in regard to 
the quality of work that is to be expected. The distinction will depend upon 
the conditions of age, material, time, position of writer, knowledge of the 
content subject involved, and the amount of training which the pupil has in 
penmanship. 

It is true that penmanship is easier to correlate with some subjects, like 
spelling, than it is with others. It seems though that the real time to emphasize 
correlation is not during the teaching of the content subject itself. One thing 
at a time is about all that can be done and done well. The class should be 
told that penmanship is desired and what some of the general essentials are 
and the individual may even be asked to be careful in respect to his own 
particular difficulties if there is time to do so These suggestions should be 
offered at the beginning of the period. At the end of the period when the 
papers are handed in the work should be critisized and remedial suggestions 
offered. The standing given the paper may also be influenced by the quality 
of the writing and this fact the pupil' should know beforehand. 

The real time for correlation seems to be at the time of the formal writing 

22 


lesson. That does not mean that other written work should be brought into 
class and done there for the sake of helping out some teacher or subject, but 
that work along the line of spelling, arithmetic, and literature which has real 
penmanship problems to be solved should be presented to the class for exer¬ 
cise purposes. In this fashion the pupil will know how to apply his knowl¬ 
edge when he does other content work. The main subject in such a method 
of procedure will naturally be penmanship and the content subject will be 
secondary only. It is not wise to stop the child when busy doing written work 
in a content subject to critisize his writing or to emphasize penmanship 
essentials. 

Inspire before- the written work begins and critisize after, but let the: 
child alone while he is expressing himself. When written work is done in- 
the penmanship class such is not the case. The object is then penmanship only 
and not the content. 

Pride in his work will often help the pupil in his correlation process. 

Correlation is simply adaptation. 

HANDEDNESS 

In developing the character of the human race, its many sidedness must 
be taken into consideration. In developing the physical abilities of man, 
however, there are only two sides to be considered, namely left and right. 
This fact is very important in learning to write. Although there are only 
four percent of the human race that are left handed either by birth or by 
accident these few persons must be considered and given due attention. 

According to authorities there should be no transfer from left to right 
unless there is absolute certainty that the child is right-handed. The investi¬ 
gation necessary to ascertain this can hardly be made by the teacher and conse¬ 
quently the transfer should seldom be made unless the child is extremly awk¬ 
ward even with the left hand. In no case should the transfer be made with¬ 
out the consent of the parents • Whether the transfer causes the child to 
stamper or not is not a question to be discussed here. The result that is vital 
from the teacher’s stand point is that the child will not become skillful with 
either hand. 

Writing has developed into a right-handed art, but it must be kept in mind 
that art was made for the pupil and not the pupil for the art’s sake. For 
this reason, conditions must be made to fit the child and his inborn tendencies. 
The placing of the paper and the holding of the penholder should be adjusted' 
to fit the left-handed pupil. The left-handed pupil should by no means be 
ignored. The teacher should try in every way to adjust him. Of course, the 
left-handed person will find this a right-handed world to a large extent and he 
will be forced to make the necessary adjustments all along. In the schoolroom 
the teacher should help him make these adjustments by giving a little extra 
attention to him The teacher can not perhaps understand him, but one may 
rest assured that the pupil has a still harder task trying to understand the 
teacher and put it into action with his left-hand that which is demanded 
from the right-handed pupils'. He perhaps cannot compete with the right- 
handed child and his case ought to be treated carefully. He will be less able 


23 



\ 

to compete, however, if he is deprived of the use of the hand which nature 
has intended him to develop and which it has endowed with the more skill. 

DRILLS AND EXERCISES. 

Writing appears on the surface largely as a drill subject and is treated 
as such in most cases. With most people drill without very much mental 
effort or knowledge is the only requisite to good writing. This is to a large 
extent an erroneous conception. Because of the fact that writing is an acquistion 
apparently of the hand, drill exercises that involve very little mental effort are 
given in abundance. If, however, a few more mental processes were made use 
of less drills would be necessary and that which would be used would be of 
a different type. Drills for the sake of drills have very little or no value. 
To be sure some drills must be given but they should be of such nature that 
the desired letter, word, or combinatioh will grow out of them. Quality of 
line, lightness of touch, and smoothness of movement are just as likely to be 
developed by drilling on letters and words as by practicing lateral exercises, 
oval, and push and pull exercises. The movement in these repeating exercises 
cannot be carried over into words or even letters without being broken up. 
Words are made up of innumberable quips and turns and wanton wiles which 
no oval nor push and pull exercise can help develop. There are too many 
slurs and accindentals in writing to be much benefited by an exercise that is 
simply a repetition of one movement. The drill should develop the intrinsic 
or characteristic part of the letter or word. The letter and even the word itself 
may be turned into an exercise and constitute a very good drill. 

COUNTING. 

The universe itself is built on harmony and everything within it possesses 
the same qualities to a smaller or greater degree. Penmanship, although no 
built primarily on a rhythmic basis is not entirely an exception. It does possess 
some qualities that lend themselves to a rhythmic count and cadence. Especially 
so do the exercises upon which the movemenfs are built. To be sure there are 
slurs and syncopations of various kinds but the beat and the tempo are there. 
Individual exercises and letters and groups of similar letters submit very easily 
to rhythmic counting. At times even words do also. 

Counting, especially where a larger group is being taught, helps to unify 
the work. It keeps the class working together. The slow are spurred on and 
the rapid ones are slowed down. Drawing is discouraged and scribbling is 
impeded. Counting procures an easy movement and regulates it. It is one 
means the teacher has of denoting to the class the amount of speed that is re¬ 
quired of the particular grade. Counting keeps the class interested and at 
work. ( 

There are many ways that may be used in counting. Tapping with a pen¬ 
cil, beating time with a metronome, counting for the letters and even words 
using the numerical count, calling the letters in a word by name. Humming 
or singing softly a tune which has the proper tempo, or using the piano or 
victrola are all worth while methods. Marches and walzes often give the 
right tempo and rhythm. The human voice, however, as a rule is the very 
best instrument for counting. It can be modulated and the accidentals and 


24 


slurs can be inserted wherever needed. The pupils will be able to count for 
themselves with very little practice and very good results are produced. 

In counting, however, be sure that the pupils are working with the count 
otherwise the effort is worse than useless. At first, perhaps, some of the 
pupils will not be able to follow but with a little practice they will be able 
to do so and their movement will improve in proportion to their ability to 
follow the count. 


CHARACTERISTIC COUNT 

Writing is legible only in so far as the different letters are different. As 
soon as they become alike they lose their character and consequently their 
value. Each letter has its own outstanding characteristics, for example, the 
main characteristic of the small “u” is that it has two points at the top and 
on the other hand the letter “n” is rounded at the top twice. In counting 
these characteristics may be made use of in two ways. First, in helping the 
learner to visualize and second in making it possible for the teacher to count 
practically as rapidly as the pupil can write. The characteristic count also 
helps the pupil by means of visualization to set his own copy, and this in 
itself is a splendid means of motivation. To teach without setting a copy 
may sound absurb but nevertheless it can be done, provided the pupil knows 
the code which is the characteristic count. It is well to use this count in 
writing words but the numerical count should be used in more rapid writing 
after a good copy has been produced with the characteristic count. The 
characteristic count is adapted to the lower grades while the numerical count 
to the upper grades. The count that is given for each individual letter may 
easily be worked into the count for a word but, of course, the final and initial 
counts must be dropped in most cases. 

Capitals do not offer a big problem and consequently the numerical count 
can be used more effectively perhaps than the characteristic count. Interest¬ 
ing counts of many kinds may be worked out. Never, however, use a count 
that is too slow. As soon as a pupil is working well shorten the count by 
dropping the least essential counts. 

The counts both numerical and characteristic as well as the approximate 
number of times a letter ought to be written per minute in the upper grades 
will be given below. A comma in the numerical counts has no meaning but 
a dash signifies that a little longer time should be taken where the dash is 
found. It is well to insert the word and in place of the dash and then shorten 
it to ’nd. In the characteristic count the words that are enclosed in parenthesis 
should be dropped as soon as the letter form or word is well understood. 
Other counts may be dropped in order to hasten the count. Never allow the 
count to drag. 


Letter 

Numerical 

Characteristic 

Speed per Minute 

i 

1, 2, 3 

point, up, dot 

100-120 

u 

1, 2, 3 

point, point, up 

70- 80 

w 

1, 2, 3, -4 

point, point, up, (retrace), 

swing 50 -55 

e 

1, 2 

loop, up 

100-120 

n 

1, 2, 3 

over, over, up 

60- 70 


25 


m 

1, 2, 3, 4 

over, over, over, up 

50- 55 

V 

1, 2, -3 

over, up, (retrace), swing 

75- 80 

X 

1, 2, 3 

over, up, cross 

75- 80 

a 

1, 2, 3 

’round, point, up 

70- 80 

o 

1, 2, (3) 

(up) ’round, swing 

80- 90 

c 

1, 2, (3) 

(up) hook, up 

70- 80 

r 

1, -2, 3, 4 

up, (dot), down, up 

70- 80 

s 

1, -2, 3 

up, (dot), under, up 

80- 90 

t 

1, 2, 3, 4 

(big) point, down, up, cross 

75- 85 

d 

1, 2, 3 

’round, (big) point, down, up 

60- 70 

P 

1, 2, 3, 4 

(big) point, down, ’round, up 

60- 65 

1 

1, 2 

(big) loop, up 

100-120 

b 

1, 2, -3 

(big) loop, up, (retrace), swing 

70- 80 

h 

1, 2, 3 

(big) loop, over, up 

60- 70 

k 

1, 2, -3, 4 

(bii loop, over, under, (down), up 

50- 60 

j 

1, 2 

point, lower 

70- 80 

y 

1, 2, 3 

over, point, lower 

70- 75 

g 

1, 2, 3 

’round, point, lower 

60- 70 

q 

1, 2, 3 

’round, point, right, up 

50- 60 

f 

1, 2, 3 

(big) loop, right, up 

60- 70 

z 

1, -2 

over, and, left 

70- 75 

Letter 

Numerical 

Characteristic Speed per Minute 

A 

1, 2, 3 

(big) ’round, down, up 

60 

U 

1, 2, 3 

oval, crook, (big) point, up 

45 

V 

1, 2, -3 

oval, crook, up, (retrace), swing 

45 

w 

1. 2, 3, -4 

oval, crook, (big) point, up, (retrace), swing 40 

Y 

1, 2, 3 

oval, crook, (big) point, lower 

40 

N 

1, 2, 3 

oval, crook, over, up 

45 

M 

1, 2, 3, 4 

oval, crook, over, over, up 

40 

T 

1, 2, 3, A 

up, down, oval, wave 

40 

F 

1, 2, 3, 4, 5 

up, down, oval, wave, cross 

40 

L 

1, 2, 3 

loop, down, oval, wave 

45 

P 

1, 2, -3 

up, down, ’round 

60 

B 

L 2, -3, 4 

up, down, ’round, ’round, swing 

40 

R 

1, 2, -3, 4 

up, down, ’round, slide, up 

45 

0 

1, 2 

(big) ’round, swing 

60 

D 

1, 2, 3 

down, loop, up, swing 

45 

C 

1, 2 

oval, (big) curve 

60 

E 

1, 2, 3 

oval, ’round, ’round 

45 

I 

1, 2, 3 

up, under, swing 

45 

J 

1, 2, 3 

up, down, lower 

43 

H 

1, 2, 3, 4 

oval, crook, down, loop, swing 

35 

K 

1, 2, 3, -4 

oval, crook, double (curve), slide, up 

35 

S 

1, 2 

loop, under, swing 

45 

G 

1, 2, 3, 4 

loop, point, under, swing 

40 

Q 

1, 2, -3 

oval, curve, oval, wave 

45 


26 


35 

45 


X 

1, 2, 3 

oval, curve, curve, up 

z 

1, 2, -3 

oval, curve, loop, left 

1 

1 

down 

2 

1, 2 

dot, curve, swing 

3 

1, 2, 3 

dot, curve, Curve 

4 

1, 2, 3 

down, wave, down 

5 

1, 2, 3 

down, curve, swing 

6 

1, 2 

down, oval 

7 

1, 2 

wave, down 

8 

1, 2 

(double) curve, up 

9 

1, 2 

round, down 


The counts given are only suggestions, others may be evolved that will 
appeal more to the children. 

A MODEL AND AN INDIVIDUAL STYLE OF PENMANSHIP. 

It is by no means inconsistent for a teacher to possess and make use of 
two styles of writing. In English we use two styles and the same is reason¬ 
able in writing. The two styles are the formal, model or copy hand and 
the informal, personal or individual hand. The nearer the informal approaches 
the formal hand the better. The informal hand should, however, be entirely 
automatic. The formal hand should adhere to all the rules of good writing, 
rt nd every effort should be put forth to give every essential its due attention 
allowing as little individuality to creep in as possible. This style alone should 
be used and set as a copy. It is not to be used when content is involved and 
is not automatic. 

The informal hand may vary from the formal or copy hand in many ways, 
but the variations must be consistent and uniform. The slant may be more or 
less, the spacing may be less compact or extended and the size of the letters 
may vary as described in the paragraph on alignment. Extreme irregularities 
should at all times be avoided. The letter forms should always be distinct 
and well made irrespective of size, slant, spacing or quality of line. This style 
should never be used as copy. In using this style as a copy the learner will 
be very likely to copy the individual characteristics which is not the case with 
the formal style In copying from the formal style the characteristics that 
develop will not ruin the pupil’s informal penmanship which is being developed. 
The object of teaching writing in the grades is not to develop a formal style 
on the part of the pupil but an informal style. 

HOW TO STUDY PENMANSHIP 

To insure good results the mental forces as well as the physical forces 
must be mustered. The learning to write is one continual habit forming pro¬ 
cess. The mental processes must ever be on the alert making adjustments of 
the body and the material used until the habit of good position has been estab¬ 
lished. Then there is the study of muscular and nervous responses which 
must ever be before the pupil until the trick is learned and until quality of 
line and movement have been mastered. Then again there is the study of the 
lines themselves and their directions and joinings and relations to other lines 
in the letter and word. 


& 




Because of the fact that writing is a manual art there must naturally be 
a constant relation between the mental and the physical. To expect the child 
to do all this is demanding a great deal, but the efficient teacher will by proper 
kind and amount of instruction help the pupil in solving the problems that 
confront him. Each of the processes must be studied seperately. This study 
will take place during the formal writing lesson. They must also be studied 
together in order to become correlated. Each child, however, has his own 
personal formula with which to contend and consequently has his own problems. 

The first problem to study is position. In settling the position problem 
it is sometimes necessary to adjust and change the seats themselves. A child 
should have a seat that fits irrespective of his grade. It is very important, 
however, that the child sit well. Keep on demanding position until it is secured. 

The adjustment of wrist, elbow and pen and the manner of supporting 
the pen need study from time to time in order to obtain the right results as 
the muscles and the bones of the growing child are making adjustments and 
developing in the child all along his school years. 

A good movement cannot be secured until the problem of position has 
been solved. It would not be good policy, however, to wait to develop move¬ 
ment until position has been thoroughly mastered because position does not 
come all at once. When position has been settled the teacher should bring to 
the child’s mind what is meant by quality of line and movement and how to 
attain them. Any scheme that might produce lightness of touch that is not 
inconsistent with practical results and work should be utilized. The appeal 
for lightness of touch should be kept up until the quality suited to the age and 
the material used has been secured. 

The third step in the study of penmanship is form itself as it appears in 
either exercise, letter or word. Appeal should be made through as many senses 
as possible. Every avenue of approach should be utilized. Like every other 
subject writing, to some extent, although an acquired art is within the pupil, 
at least the component parts are. The love of beauty, the feeling for rhythm 
and spacing, lightness of touch, ability to move easily and nerve control are 
all mental or physical qualities and all can be used in making letters even 
though the letters are artificial. It is to these qualities we must appeal in 
teaching writing. The study that the pupil does must be along these lines and 
he must approach the subject from these different avenues. 

The three senses that the pupil may and should use are seeing, hearing, 
and feeling. To use all of them is but to make the subject matter more inter¬ 
esting as well as more intelligible. The eye should grasp the visual demon¬ 
stration, the ear should grasp the oral directions and the sensory faculties 
should be made acquainted with the forms by acting them out in the air with 
a large movement. By using the three senses in this manner a mental image 
will have been produced so that when the arm is once set into motion on paper 
or blackboard it will reproduce the form graphically with smoothness of 
movement and without hesitation. 

After the letter or exercise form has been produced on paper or black¬ 
board it should again be studied. Mistakes should be discovered and the good 
points appreciated. It is just as essential to be concious of the successes 
achieved as it is to be sure of failures made. If the attempt has been repaid 


28 


it is well to appreciate the fact so that no more time than is necessary will 
be devoted to it. When one task has been accomplished go on to another. At 
first the successes will seem to be mere accidents but little by little the failures 
will be accidents. After the attempt has been diagnosed try again. Rarely 
try to improve more than one point at a time. Haphazard practice avails 
nothing. General instructions should never be given, general practice should 
never be done. It is better by far to make but a few marks with which brains 
have been mixed than to cover pages with unstudied lines. 

In studying penmanship it; is a good plan to check up on the results with 
the list of essentials according to their importance as elsewhere described, in 
order to find the real trouble. Practice on the essentials that offer the largest 
difficulties. Study before and after an attempt has been made but never during 
the actual process of writing. Such a procedure only retards movement and 
encourages a slow finger movement style of penmanship. The hand ought 
to go where the head directs. At first the eye helps to direct the hand and pen 
step by step, in every turn and stroke and the hand follows slowly. When 
the sense of direction and a certain amount of assurance has been gained, 
more intricate forms should be attempted and also greater speed. First, the 
principle, then the letter and finally the word; these are the steps to be followed. 
Step by step, each larger group should be regarded as a whole and done with 
a certain amount of abandon forgetting, to an extent, the details. In the for¬ 
mal writing there should be less abandon than in informal work. Teach 
movement always. 


29 


PART TWO 


The following pages are devoted to a series of penmanship 
lessons in keeping with the remarks that have already been 
made concerning the growth and development of the child and 
concerning the essentials of the art. 


PRINCIPLES UPON WHICH MODERN DAY PENMANSHIP IS BUILT 

Present day penmanship can be analyzed into eight basic principles. From 
these principles it is possible to build with only a few modifications called ex¬ 
ceptions all the small and capital letters of the alphabet as well as the figures 
As in music there are naturally a few accidentals and slurs to be taken care 
of as they cannot be classified. 

It is possible to evolve all the principles from the ellipse or oval as it is com¬ 
monly called. This oval is virtually principle six and will be regarded as such. 
In order to produce the other principles it will be necessary to construct an 
oval two spaces tall on a thirty degree slant, that is, thirty degrees from the 
vertical. Draw the long axis and also a horizontal line bisecting the long 
axis and also the sides of the oval. 

Principle one: 

The lower end of the long axis will produce or rather be principle one. 
Principle one consequently is a straight line one space tall made downward. 

Principle two: 

The lower right hand quarter of the circumference of the oval will be 
principle two Principle two therefore is an under curve one space tall and 
made upward. 

Principle three: 

The upper left hand quarter of the circumference of the oval will be 
principle three. Principle three consequently is an over curve, one space tall 
and made upward. 

At times principles two and three will be made downwards. When this 
occurs they will be spoken of as reversed and an arrow will indicate the direc¬ 
tion. The curve in such a case will be somewhat larger. 

Principle four: 

Principle four is a combination of principles two and one somewhat modi¬ 
fied. It is three spaces or rather three units tall in adult writing but for the 
sake of not making exercises that are too large to manage in the lesson to 
follow principle four as well as principles five, six, seven and eight will be 


30 


made two spaces tall. The curved stroke or principles two, two spaces tall 
is made first and curves arqund to the left at the top to meet the down stroke 
which is principle one made two spaces tall. The two principles cross one space 
above the base line. 

Principle five: 

Principle five is a combination of principles one and three lengthened to 
two spaces. Principle one is made first and goes one space below the base 
line. It curves around to the left at the bottom and joins principle three, 
which finishes one space above the base line. The two strokes cross on the 
base line. 

Principle six: 

Principle six as described before is an oval two spaces tall. It maybe 
made either clockwise or counter clockwise. This will depend upon the letter 
to be developed. 

Principle seven: 

Principle seven is made from the oval or principle six by drawing a 
vertical line through the oval and through the lower end of the long axis. This 
line will, therefore, be a trifle to the left of the long axis at the top. The 
large curve at the top and the part of the oval to the right of the vertical 
line will be principle seven. This principle may begin with either a small oval 
or a dot. Principle eight may begin in the same manner. 

Principle eight. 

Principle eight is made from principle §even by changing the lower half 
from a curved line to principle one. It is important to retain the graceful' 
curve at the top. The span of this curve may vary a little but care should 
be taken not to crowd it. This applies to principle seven also. 

In all of these principles the slant should be uniform. Refer to the 
paragraph on slant in order to solve the slant problem. 

Before proceeding it is well perhaps to explain a few terms which are 
simple enough but which may need some explanation. They are as follows; 

A line is the stroke or mark that runs across the paper laterally. 

A space is the distance between two lines. Quite often line and space are 
confused. Care should be taken in this regard. 

A unit is one third of a space. In writing done by group three mentioned 
under “Size of Work” the minumum letters are one unit tall and the others- 
are in proportion. 

Base line is the line at the bottom of the space or the line written upon. 

Head line is the line at the top of the space. When the exercise is twa 
spaces tall this line in the middle is called the middle line. 

A compartment or room (or any name the teacher wishes to give it) is one 
of the sixteen equal parts into which a space and line have been divided. 

A construction is the graphic result produced by following a given set 
of instructions. 

Retrace has two meanings. In building up a letter it means that a part 
of the line is to be retracked or used twice in order to produce the letter. In 


31 


exercise work is simply means that the construction is gone over and over 
repeatedly. 

Omit means to disregard, that is, not to retrace certain parts of the con¬ 
struction. This will occur when parts of the construction are not needed to 
make the letter. 

Study means simply that time enough should be given for a thorough 
understanding of the principles and the instructions given. 

EXPLANATION OF THE LESSON OUTLINES 

Each capital and small letter lesson is divided into seven steps. These 
steps will not be enumerated in each individual lesson outline. 

Step one. 

Step one indicates the exercise to be practiced. The exercise in each case 
is intended to develop the essential part of the letter to be taught as well as 
to develop movement and speed. 

Step two. 

Step two gives the building process step by step. The different sub-steps 
are lettered. Id building up the letter it is wise to build, up only one copy of 
the letter at a time. After one letter has been constructed and retraced accor¬ 
ding to step number three one compartment should be skipped and the letter 
built up again. This process should be repeated until the line is full. Each 
successive letter or attempt should be made a little better and the teacher should 
criticise the work after each attempt. If desired the entire line of step four 
may be done before another letter is constructed. 

Step three. 

Step three calls for a retracing of the structure developed by step two. 
This retracing takes place each time a letter has been built up. Retrace to 
count. 

Step four. 

Step four calls for writing of the letter freely and withiout construction 
lines, to count. Freedom and movement should be demanded. 

Step five. 

Step five calls for instruction according to grade, or group as mentioned 
in “Size of Work“ under the title “Writing as a growth/’ The number of 
letters per line will vary according to the size of the letter. The larger the 
letter the smaller the number. The teacher should decide this by working out 
the letter beforehand. 

Step six. 

Step six introduces a word. Words suitable for each lesson are found on 
another page. The size of the letters is according to group one. The word 
after having been written is retraced to count. The teacher may improvise 
liis own count. 

Step seven. 

In this step the word is reduced according to group and then retraced to 
count. After the word has been retraced several times several lines should 
i>e written without retracing. 


32 


FIGURES. 


The figure lessons are divided into three steps. Step one is the building 
process. Step two is retracing and step three is reducing and retracing. Count 
for the figures also and make them snappy. 

PRESENTATION. 

In developing a letter it is not to be expected that the seven steps as outlined 
be completed in one day. From three to five days should be devoted to a 
letter, that is, to go through every step. The different steps should be divided 
up so that the lesson material cover the number of lessons devoted to it with an 
adequate amount of practice for each step. The arrangement will depend 
•upon the school system and the amount of allotted time. The lessons may 
he so arranged that the small letters and capitals may be taught separately or 
together. The figures may be taught at any time. It is well, however, to teach 
no capitals except incidentally in the first and second grades and sometimes 
even in the third grade. The entire year’s work may be devoted to capitals 
or to small letters as conditions demand. If the capitals are taught alone the 
order in which they are presented should be followed. If they are taught in 
conjunction with the small letters it is well not to begin them until the small 
letter “a” has been reached. The capitals may then be taught in the same order 
until the capital “A” has been reached. From this point on the capitals and 
small letters may be taught together using the order of the small letters. A 
.small letter and its capital may then be taught each week. 

The writing period should begin promptly. Materials should be distributed 
in the most efficient manner possible. Begin every lesson with an exercise. Be 
sure that the child understands every step. Study the results often. Discuss 
the work. Use the blackboard. Make the class interesting and inspiring. Praise 
often. Encourage rather than scold. Four things hold in mind always, namely; 
position, letter form, movement, and speed. 

RURAL SCHOOL ADAPTATION. 

In a graded school the work will naturally be taught grade by grade and se¬ 
rious difficulties in the division of pupils, and lesson division will not be encountered 
In the rural school, however, this is not the case In order to save time all 
the grades may be taught together. A twenty minute period is long enough. 
The pupils should be divided into three groups. This grouping should be 
according to the groups one, two and three as described under “Size of Work.” 

Because a pupil is in a certain grade it is not to be understood that he must 
necessarily be placed in the group that such a grade calls for. If he is able 
to do the work of the group above, he should be placed there and if he is 
unable to do the work of his group he should be placed where he belongs. In 
this manner he will receive the proper development. 

The first thing to do is to divide the room into groups. The pupils should 
understand definitely what groups they are in. It may take a few weeks to do 
so, however. 

According to the lesson outlines steps one, two and three will be taught 
to all the groups at the same time. With a little practice the lower grades 


33 


will be able to keep pace with the older* ones. In presenting step five division' 
should be made according to groups. The attention of group number three 

should be procured first and the pupils of the other two groups go on with 
their work. Group three should then be instructed to write the letter one third 
of a space tall. The number of letters to a line and the speed should be 
indicated by the teacher. The teacher then passes on to group two. Groups 
one and three remain at work. The size of the writing, the number of letters 
to a line and the speed should be indicated. The teacher then passes on to- 
group one. Groups two and three remain at work. After all the groups have 
worked a while on step five the whole room is set to work on step six. All 
groups receive the same instruction for step six and work together. In presen¬ 
ting step seven the attention of each individual group is secured and set to 
work separately as in step five. Where the development of a letter is spread 
through several lessons practically the same process will hold true. 

********** 

Before starting these lessons be sure that the pupils know 
the purpose and aim of writing. Keep in mind always that 
movement is essential in order to produce the proper amount 
of speed. Never allow the pupil to draw or fall into the 
habit of using finger movement. Make the lesson an inspira¬ 
tion. Follow instructions carefully and the effort will be 
productive of good results. 

Construction Number One. 

Divide the second line on the paper in the middle with a light dot. 

Study principle one. On this light dot erect principle one one space tall. 

Bisect each half with a dot and erect principle one again on each dot. ; 
Bisect each quarter and erect principle one. Bisect each eighth and erect ? 
principle one. 

In the lower grades folding the paper in order to make lines may be j 
found helpful. The papers produced by pupils who do good work may be * 
given to other pupils who do not grasp instruction easily. In this manner 
a great deal of explanation may be avoided. 

The above process has divided the line and space into sixteen equal parts 
the result of which will be called construction number one. 

Exercise Number One. 

Study principle two. Make construction number one and place principle 
two in each ccompartment. In doing so principle two begins at the very ' 
lower left hand corner and ends in the upper right hand corner of the com¬ 
partment. This operation will produce a connected series of sixteen up strokes * 
and fifteen down strokes. The exercise is pointed at the top and rounded at 
the bottom. 

Omit down stroke number eight. The result will be exercise number one 
which contains eight up strokes and seven down strokes. This exercise is 
contained in eighteen of the small letters. 


34 


Retrace to count. The count will be up, down, up, down, etc., at first 
then 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or the characteristic count which is point, point, etc., 
up. Make sure that the pupils make a continuous line retracing both up and 
down strokes with equal pressure. 

Write the exercise as it has been developed without construction lines and 
retrace to count. Do not let the count drag. Move on. 

Reduce the following exercise to group as described in “Size of Work.” 
In the lessons to follow the exercise should be reduced each time. Retrace 
to count. 


“i” lesson. 


1. Exercise number one. 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. In compartments 1 and 2 place principle two. 

c. Omit down stroke two. 

3. Retrace to count. 

4. Write without construction lines and retrace to count. 

5. Reduce according to grade and retrace to count. 

Steps six and seven are wanting in letters i, u, and w. 

‘V 4 lesson. 


1. Exercise number one. 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. In compartments 1, 2 and 3 place principle two. 

c. Omit down stroke number three. 

3. Retrace to count. 

4. Write without construction lines and retrace to count. 

5. Reduce according to grade and retrace to count. 

“w” lesson 

1. Exercise number one. 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. In compartments 1, 2 and 3 place principle two. 

c. Place a dot 1-3 of a space down from the top on principle two in 
compartment three. 

d. From this dot make a shallow principle two across compartment four 
to the top of down stroke number four. 

e. Omit down strokes three and four. 

Steps three, four, and five are the same as in the “u” lesson. 

Small loop exercise or exercise number three. 

1. Exercise number one. 

2. a. Construction number one 

b. Study principle four. Ordinarily principle four is two spaces tall but 
in this case it will be made one space tall. The crossing will be about 
1-3 of a space from the botom. On each down stroke except number 
eight superimpose principle four so that the loop will be on the right 


35 




side of the down stroke and the straight line of the principle will 
coincide with the down stroke. The up stroke of principle four will in 
each case begin in the lower left hand corner of the compartment to the 
left of principle one. The crossing is 1-3 of a space up. 

c. In compartments eight and sixteen place principle two. 

d. Omit down stroke eight. This process has produced the loop exercise 
or exercise number three one space tall. Later on the exercise will be 
made two spaces tall with the crossing half way up. 

3. Retrace to count. The count will be loop, loop, etc., up or 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 
7, up. Try to keep the down stroke straight but not so much as to 
cause finger movement. 

Steps four and five are the same as in previous lessons. 

“e” lesson. 

1. Exercises numbers one and three. 

.2. a. Construction number one. 

b. On down stroke number one superimpose principle four one space tall 
as per step (b) in small loop exercise lesson. 

c. In compartment 2 place principle two. 

d. Omit down stroke number two. 

3. Retrace to count 

4. Write a line of disconnected e’s and retrace to count. 

5. Reduce according to grade and retrace to count. 

6. Write the word “wee” one space tall. Retrace to count. Be sure that the 
small retrace in the “w” is well made and that the swing is made low 
enough to take care of the first “e”. The loop in the first “e” is smaller 
than the second “e.” Care should always be taken after letters ending 
with a swing as does the “w.” 

7. Reduce according to grade and retrace. 

All the different' steps have been carried out in the above lesson and in 
the lessons to follow only the first and second steps will be given in detail. 
The others are to be carried out as in this lesson. The word for step six is to 
be found in each case at the head of each group of words found on another 
page, these words are so arranged that only letters that have been taught are 
utilized. 


The over, over exercise or exercise number two. 

1. Wanting 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. Study principle number three. In all the compartments except eight 
and sixteen place principle three. The instruction for placing principle 
three is the same as for principle two. 

c. In compartments eight and sixteen place principle two. 

d. Omit down stroke number eight. 

3. Retrace to count. The count will be over, over,, etc., up or 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ,6, 

7, up. 

Steps four and five are the same as in exercise number one. Steps six and 
seven are wanting. 


36 


“n” lesson. 


1. Exercise number two. 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. In compartments 1 and 2 place principle three. 

c. In compartment 3 place principle two. 

d. Omit down stroke number three. 

“m” lesson 

1. Exercise number two. 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. In compartments 1, 2 and 3 place principle three. 

c. In compartment 4 place principle two. 

d. Omit down stroke number four. 

“v” lesson. 


1. Exercise number two. 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. In compartment 1 place principle three. 

c. In compartment 2 place principle two. 

d. On principle two just placed in compartment 2 place a dot 1-3 of a 
space down from the top. From this dot draw a shallow principle 
two across compartment three to the top of down number three. 

c. Omit down strokes two and three. 

“x” lesson 

1. Exercise number two. 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. In compartment 1 place principle three. 

c. In compartment 2 place principle two, 

d. In compartment 1 bisect the base line with a dot. Bisect the head 
line of compartment two. 

e. Between these two bisecting dots draw a straight line upwards. 

f. Omit down stroke number two. 

“a” lesson. 

1. Exercise number one. 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. In compartments 1 and 2 place principle two. 

c. In compartment 1 also place principle three. Principle three is made 
in reverse order. Principles two and three together form a rather 
narrow oval. 

d. Omit down stroke number two. 

“o” or oval exercise. 


1. Wanting 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. Study principle six. On all down strokes except eight construct a. 


37 


narrow oval one space tall using the down stroke of the construction 
as the long axis. 

e. In compartments 1 and 9 place principle three. 

d. Between the tops of all down strokes except between eight and nine 
draw a horizontal line that is almost straight but with a very slight 
sag in it. 

e. Omit all the straight down strokes. 

3. Retrace to count. In retracing this exercise it is a very good policy to 
retrace each separate oval from five to ten times before swinging to 
. the next one. The count in this case will be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 glide or 
swing etc. to the end. In retracing the oval only once each time the 
count will be 1, glide, 2,' glide etc. Count up for the beginning strokes. 

Steps four and five are the same as in the other exercise developments. 

“o” lesson. 

1. The “o” exercise. 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. On down stroke number one place a narrow principle six. 

c. In compartment one place principle three. 

d. In compartment two between down strokes one and two place a 
horizontal line with a shallow sag in it. 

e. Omit down strokes one and two. 

“c” lesson. 

1, Exercises one and two. 

2. a. Construction one. 

b. In compartment 1 place either principle two or three. Neither one 
of these principles will produce absolutely the correct form but it is the 
nearest approach possible. 

c. In compartment two place principle two. 

d. To the right side of the down stroke number one add a little hook or 
small arch about one quarter of a compartment in width. This is 
added at the top. 

e. Omit down stroke number two. 

“r” lesson. 

1. Exercise number one. 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. In compartments 1 and 3 place principle two. 

c. Place a dot 1-3 of a space down from the top on down stroke number 
two. From the top of down stroke number one to this dot draw a 
straight line. 

d. To the top of down stroke number one add a* very short principle one, 
projecting above the headline. 

e. Omit down strokes one and three and the part of down stroke two that 
is above the dot. 

.3. Retrace to count. In retracing the slight projection above the headline is 
a retraced stroke, that is, it is made both going up and coming down. 


38 


“s” lesson. 


1. Exercise number one. 

-2. a. Construction number one. 

b. In compartments 1 and 2 place principle two. 

c On principle two in the first compartment place a dot one third of a 
space up from the botom. Study principle two again. Principle two 
will be made down or reversed in this case. It will bulge a trifle more. 
Begin at the top of down stroke number one, curve out to the right 
and then bring it back to the bottom of down stroke one. Then curve 
it up to the dot in compartment one. 

d. To the top of down stroke one add a very short principle one. 

e. Omit the straight down stroke. 

3. The retrace at the top is the same as in the “r.” 

A good continuous exercise is made by joining several s’s. 

“t” lesson. 


1. Exercise number one. 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. In compartments 1 and 2 place principle two. 

c. To the top of down stroke number one add principle one, one space 
tall. This will make the down stroke two spaces tall. 

d. In the upper principle one place a dot Yl a space down from the top. 
Through this dot draw a horizontal straight line extending about 1-3 of 
a compartment on either side. 

e. Omit down stroke number two. 

3. In retracing avoid a loop at the top. 

“d” lesson. 

1. Exercise number one. 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. In compartments 1 and 2 place principle two. 

c. In compartments one also place principle three as in step (c) of letter 
“a" 

d. To the top of down stroke number one add principle one, one space tall. 

e. Omit down stroke number two. 

“p” lesson. 

1. Exercises number one and two. 

2. b. In compartments 1 and 2 place principle two. 

c. In compartment 2 also placed principle thee as in step (c) of letter “a” 

d. To the top and bottom of down stroke number one add principle one, 
one space tall. The whole straight down stroke will thus be three 
spaces tall. A little difficulty may be found in making this letter, but 
be sure that the instructions are carried out. In more mature writing 
a loop may be made below the line. 

e. Omit down stroke number two. 

If a final upstroke is wanted a principle two may be added. 


39 


Loop exercise or exercise number three. 

This exercise is the same as described previous to the “e” lesson only 
differing in the point that it is two spaces tall and crosses half way up. In 
reducing this exercise according to grade, and in reducing all letters that con¬ 
tain this loop there will according to the paragraph on “Size of Work” be 
only two sizes, namely two spaces and one space. The height of the letter 
will, however, be only one third of a space up in group number three and 
half a space in group number two. 

“1” lesson. 


1. Exercise number three. 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. To the top of down stroke number one add principle one, one space 
tall. On this tall stroke superimpose principle four. 

c. In compartment two place principle two, one space tall. 

d. Omit down stroke number two. 

“b” lesson. 

1. Exercise number three. 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. As in step (b) of letter “1.” 

c. In compartment 2 place principle two one space tall. 

d. In the principle two just placed, place a dot as in step (d) in letter “v” 
and construct principle two as described. 

e. Omit down stroke number two and three. 

“h” lesson. 

1. Exercises two and three. 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. As in step (b) of letter “1.” 

c. In compartment 2 place principle three one space tall. 

d. In compartment 3 place principle two one space tall. 

e. Omit down stroke number three. 

“k” lesson. 

1. Exercises three and two. 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. As in step (b) of letter “1.” 

c In compartment three place principle two, one space tall. 

d. At the top end to the right of down stroke number two so that the 
blue line on the paper will be the long axis construct a horizontal oval 
about V4 of a compartment in length. 

e. In compartment two place principle three so that it finishes at the top 
side of the horizontal oval. 

d. Omit down stroke number three. 

3. In retracing do not close the little oval on the left side. Be sure to keep 
the short down stroke straight. The oval part extends just a trifle above 
the space. 


40 


Lower loop exercise or exercise number four. 

1. Wanting. 

2. a. Construction number one. 

. b. To the bottom of each down stroke except number eight add principle 
one. This will make the stroke two spaces long, one space above and 
one space below the baseline. Study principle five. As explained under 
“Principles” there is a little discrepancy in this principle in that the 
the finish in the up stroke above the crossing varies according to the 
letter that follows. When a letter begins with a principle three there 
is no change, but when it begins with a principle two there is. The 
stroke really becomes a double curve and it will be impossible to ab¬ 
solutely take care of this stroke. If any angles are formed in building 
a letter or exercise they should be rounded off. 

c. Dropping the part of the upstroke that continues above the baseline 
superimpose the loop part on the long down strokes. The straight 
stroke of principle five will coincide with the straight stroke and the 
loop will be to the left. 

d. In all compartments above the base line place principle two except in 
eight and sixteen. 

e. In compartments eight and sixteen place principle three. 

f. Omit down stroke number eight. 

3. Retrace to count. The count will be point, lower, lower, etc. or up, 1, 2, 

3, 4, 5, 6, 7. 

“j” lesson. 

1. Exercises one and four. 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. To the bottom of down stroke number one add principle one, one space 
tall. On this long stroke superimpose principle five, that is the loop 
part only. 

c. In compartment 1 place principle two. 

d. In compartment 2 place either principle two or principle three. 

e. Omit down stroke number two. 

“y” lesson. 

1. Exercise number two and exercise number four. 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. In compartment 1 place principle three. 

c. In compartment 2 place principle two. 

d. As in step (b) of letter “j.” 

e. In compartment three repeat step (d) of letter “j.” 

f. Omit down stroke number three. 

“g” lesson. 

1. Exercises number two and four. 

2. Repeat all the steps of letter “j” in order, including step (d). 

e. In compartment one place principle three reverse as in step (c) of 


41 


lefter “a.” 

f. Omit down stroke number two. 

“q” lesson. 

1. Exercise number one. The oval exercise developed for the small ‘ o may 

be used but the oval will be retracted in the reverse order. 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. To the bottom of down stroke number one add principle one, one 
space tall. 

c. On the right hand side of the part that extends below the base line 
construct the right side half of principle six, making it very narrow, 
and closing it on the baseline. 

d. In compartments 1 and 2 place principle tyro, above baseline. 

e. As in step (c) of letter “a.” 

f. Omit down stroke number two. 

“f” lesson. 

1. Exercise number one and the exercise used for the letter “q.” 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. In compartment 2 place principle two. 

c. As in step (b) of letter “1.” 

d. As in step (b) of letter “q.” 

e. As in step (c) of letter “q.” 

f. Omit down stroke number two. 

“z” lesson. 

1. Exercise number three and the oval used in letter “q.” 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. In compartment 1 place principle three. 

c. Bisect the baseline of compartment 2. From the bisecting dot construct 
principle one downward one space. Using this downward stroke as the 
long axis construct a very narrow principle six. 

d. From the bottom of the stroke number one construct a small arc about 
one quarter of a space tall so that the left end touches the down stroke 
and the right end touches the top of the oval. 

e. From the top of the oval to the top of down stroke number three con¬ 
struct a principle three 

f. Omit the straight stroke below the line and also down strokes numbers 
two and three. 


CAPITALS. 

Capitals were devised as a means of punctuation and em¬ 
phasis. As will be noticed there are very few of them to a 
written page, consequently in actual work less practice is often 
secured. When they are needed, however, they should 1i>e in 
keeping with the small letters in quality and for this reason it 
is necessary to practice them just as much as the small letters. 


42 


In the lower grades very few capitals are needed and 
when they are needed, the child may be helped by the teacher. 

Formal drill is not absolutely necessary in the first, second 
and third grades. 

The capitals may be taught in groups according to their 
general appearance and principals. It is well to teach members 
of a group consecutively, but is not necessary to arrange the 
groups in any certain order. The simpler ones should, how¬ 
ever, be taught first, and the more difficult ones attempted 
later on. By the time that the child has learned the small 
letters he will be able to better understand the capitals. 

The size of the capitals is dealt with under the paragraph 
on alignment. Capitals may be connected with the following 
small letter but “O“D,” “F,” “P,” “T ” “V,” “W” should 
only be connected in rapid adult writing. 

“A” lesson. 

1. Exercise number one made two spaces tall. The oval exercises, direct 

and indirect have not been used a great deal so far in these lessons. 
In the capitals, however, it may be desirable and even advisable at times 
to do so. In case an oval exercise is desired principal six may be 
retraced with an unbroken movement from five to ten times. Clock¬ 
wise is indirect and counterclockwise is direct The oval exercise will 
be called excerise number five direct or indirect as the case may be. 
In the letter “A” we shall use exercise five direct, two spaces tall. 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. To the top of down stroke number one add principle one one space 
tall. 

c. In compartment 1 place principal two two spaces tall. 

d. In compartment 2 place principal two one space tall. 

e. In compartment 1 place principle three two spaces tall reversed as in 
step (c) of letter “a.” 


“U” lesson. 

1. Exercise number one two spaces tall. 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. On down strokes one and two repeat as in step (b) of letter “A.” 

c. Study principal eight. On down stroke number one superimpose 
principal eight. In doing so the hook part extends about *4 a com¬ 
partment to the left of down stroke number one and the down stroke 
coincides with down stroke number one. 

d. In compartment 2 place principle two two spaces tall 

e. In compartment 3 place principle two one space tall. 

“V” lesson. 


1. Exercise one two spaces tall. 


43 


2. a. Construction number one two spaces tall. 

b. As in step (c) of letter “U.” 

c. In compartment 2 place principle two, two spaces tall 

d. In principle two place a dot 1-3 of the distance down from the top 
and repeat as in step (d) of letter “v.” 

e. Omit down strokes numbers two and three. 

“W” lesson. 

1. Exercise number one two spaces tall. 

2. a. Construction number one two spaces tall. 

b. As in step (c) of letter “U.” 

c. In compartments 2 and 3 place principle two two spaces tall. 

d. As in step (d) of letter “V.” 

e. Omit down strokes two and three and four. 

“Y” lesson. 

1. Exercise number one two spaces tall. 

.2. a. Construction number one. 

b. To the tops of down strokes one and two add principle one, one space 
tall. 

c. To the bottom of down stroke number two add principle one one space 

tall. On the part that extends below the baseline superimpose principle 
five. , 

The up stroke of principle five will finish at the top of down stroke 
number three. 

d. On down stroke number one superimpose principle eight. 

e. In compartment two place principle two two spaces tall. 

f. Omit down stroke number three. 

“N” lesson. 

1. Exercise number two two spaces tall. 

.2. a. Construction number one. 

b. To the top of down strokes one and two add principle one one space 
tall. 

c. Place a dot just atrifle from the top of down stroke number two. In 
compartment number two place principle three so that the upper end 
finishes in the dot placed in the down stroke. 

d. On down stroke number one superimpose principle eight. 

e. In compartment 3 place principle two one space tall. 

f. Omit the part of down stroke number two that is above the dot and 
also down stroke number three. 

“M” lesson. 

1. Exercise number two two spaces tall. 

,2. Construction number one. 

b. To the tops of down strokes one, two and three add principle one, 
one space tall. 


44 




c. As instep (c) of letter “N.” Do the same in down stroke number three,, 
placing the dot just a trifle lower still, and fill in compartment number 
three. 

d. In compartment 4 place principle two one space tall. 

e. As in step (d) of letter “N.” 

f. Omit the parts of the down stroke above the dots and also downstroke 
number four. 

The Wave Exercise. 

Divide the line into sixteen equal parts. In compartments 1 and 2 con¬ 
struct a horizontal oval whose length or rather whose long axis is the length 
of the line between the dots. Beginning at the left end of the first oval retrace 
the top of the first oval to the point where it touches the second oval and 
without breaking the smooth curve retrace the bottom side of the second 
oval over to the extreme right end. This will produce the wave like stroke 
to be used in several letters. If a continuous retrace excerise is desired the 
stroke maybe continued over the top of the second oval and then underneath 
the first oval. Retrace from five to ten times with a smooth line. In using 
this wave in a letter it may begin with a dot, or small oval, indirect 

“T” lseson. 

Hxercise number one two spaces tall and the wave exercise. 

a. Construction number one. 

b. To the top of down stroke number one add a principal one one half 
a space tall. 

c. Bisect the baseline of compartment number 1. From this bisecting 
dot construct a principal two to the top of down stroke number one. 

d. Above the down stroke place the wave already developed so that the 
upward bulge will fit over the stroke but without touching the top of 
the same. The top of the bulge, should touch the headline. The wave 

should almost be two compartments in lenght. 

“F” lesson. 

Repeat the entire process of letter “T.” 

2. e. Across the middle of both the principle two and principle one place 
a short horizontal stroke with a very short principle one made down 
at the right hand end close to the main down stroke. 

“L” lesson. 

1. Exercise five direct and the wave exercise. 

2. a. Construction number one. 

b. To the top of down stroke number one add principle one one space tall. 

c. Bisect the baseline of compartment number 1. From this bisecting 
dot construct principle two one space tall touching the down stroke 
half way up or on the middle line. 


45 


' d. Bisect the headline of compartment 2. From the point where the 

middle line crosses the down stroke - construct a principle three, one 

space tall to the bisecting dot. 

e. Bisect the middle line in compartment number 1. From this bisecting 
dot construct a principle two one space tall to the bisecting dot in 
in compartment 2. 

f. From the bisecting dot in the baseline of compartment 1 construct the 

wave just developed so that it will extend into the next compartment 

to the right. 

e. Omit down stroke number one. 

“P” lesson. 

1. Exercise number one and five indirect. 

2. a. Construction number one two spaces tall. 

b. Bisect the middle line of compartment 1. From this bisecting line 
construct principle two to the top of down stroke number one. 

c. In the upper half of compartment 2 place principle six indirect allowing 
it to overlap into the lower half of the compartment. From the lower 
en3 of the oval extend a curved line upward and leftward to the down 
stroke or just a trifle beyond. 

In retracing omit the left side of the oval and swing into the line extend¬ 
ing leftward from the bottom of the oval. 

“B” lesson. 

1. Exercise numbers one and five indirect. 

2. a. Construction number one two spaces tall. 

. b. As in step (b) of letter “P.” 

c. In the upper half of compartment 2 place principle six indirect. 

d. In the lower half of compartment 2 place principle six indirect allowing 

it to overlap a trifle into the upper half. 

e. Place a dot half way up on the left hand side of the lower oval. From 
this dot draw a horizontal line with a slight sag in it either partly 
across the lower oval or entirely across. 

f. In retracing omit the left hand side of the two ovals. Retrace the 

small oval produced by the overlaping of the two larger ovals. Make 

a good point where the horizontal stroke joins on. 

“R” lesson. 

1. Exercise numbers one and five indirect. 

2. Construction number one. 

b. To the top of down stroke number one add principle one one space tall. 

c. As instep (b) of letter “P.” 

d. As instep (c) of letter “P.” 

e. Bisect the baseline of compartment 2. From the point where the 
extension from the oval crosses the down stroke after having made a 
small horizontal loop draw a straight line to the bisecting dot. 


46 


f. From the same bisecting dot construct a principle two in the same 
compartment one space tall. 

g. • In retracing omit the left side of the oval and down stroke two. 

v 

“O” lesson. 

1. Exercise five direct. 

2. a. Construction number one two spaces tall. 

b. In compartment two construct principle six two spaces tall. 

c. In the upper right hand quarter of the principle six place a small 
principle six about a half a space tall and a trifle on the circular 
order. 

d. Bisect the headline of compartment number 3. From the lower end 
of the small principle six construct a principle two to the bisecting dot. 

e. In retracing omit the right side of the small oval and all straight 
down strokes. 


“D” lesson. 

1. Exercise number five direct. 

2. a. Construction number one two spaces tall. 

b. As in step (b) of letter “O.” 

c. As in step (c) of letter “O.” 

d. As in step (d) of letter “O.” 

e. In the lower right hand corner of the lower part of compartment 
number 1 place a small principle six indirect one half a space tall. 

f. Omit all straight down strokes. In retracing start at the top and go 
counterclockwise, pass from the large oval to the right side of the 
small -oval. Go up on the left side of the small oval and after 
having passed over the top go to the underside of the large oval and 
pass up on the right hand side of the large oval. Finish like the “O.” 
Retain the small open triangular space at the bottom, between the 
small and large ovals. 


“C” lesson. 


1. Exercise number five direct. 

2. a. Construction number one two spaces tall, 
b. As in step (b) of letter “O.” 

.c. Within principle six in the lower right hand corner of the upper half 
of the compartment place a small principle six one half a space tall, 
■d. Bisect the middle line of compartment 3. From the lower end of 
principle six (the large one) construct principle two to the bisecting 
dot. 

•e. Omit all straight strokes and the lower right hand quarter of the 
large principle six. In retracing retrace down the left side of the 
small oval. 


“E” lesson. 


1. Exercise number five direct. 


47 


2. a. Construction number one two spaces tall. 

b. In the upper half of compartment 2 place principle six direct. 

c. In the lower half of compartment 2 place principle six direct so that 
it overlaps a trifle into the upper half. 

d. About one half way up on the right side in the upper principle six 
construct a small principle six about one half a space tall. It is direct. 

e. Bisect the middle line of compartment 3. From the lower end of the 
lower principle six construct principle two to the bisecting dot. 

f. Omit all straight down strokes. The retracing is done clockwise 
beginning with the small oval. Be sure to retrace the small oval' 
produced by the overlapping of the two larger ovals. 

“I” lesson. 


1. Exercise number five indirect. 

2. a. Construction number one, two spaces tall. 

b. In compartment number two place principle six indirect two spaces tall 

c. A trifle to the left of the center, or to the left of the long axis draw 
a straight line paralleling the long axis. 

d. Bisect the baseline of compartment number 1. On the bisecting dot 
construct a principal one ^ a space tall. 

e. From the point where the middle line crosses the line drawn to the 
left of the axis to the top of the short principle one construct a reverse 
principle two as described in step (c) of letter “s ” 

f. From the top of the short principle one construct a horizontal line 
with a slight sag in it rightward. 

g. Omit down strokes numbers one and two and the short down stroke. 
In retracing go up on the left hand side. Omit right side of the oval. 

“J” lesson 


1. Exercise number five indirect. 

2. a. Construction number one two spaces tall. 

b. As in step (b) of letter “I.” 

c. Construct the long axis of principal six extending it one space below 

d. On the part that extends below the line superimpose principle five 
so that the upward stroke crosses the straight line on the baseline 
and extends upward about a half a space. 

e. Omit down strokes one and two and the right side of principle six. 
In retracing go up on the left side. The lines meet three times, ort 
on the line. 


“H” lesson. 

1. Exercise number two and five indirect. 

2. a. Construction number one two spaces tall. 

b. On down stroke number one superimpose principle eight. Principle 
seven may be used if desired. 

c. Study the upper right hand quarter of principle six. Place this part 
of principle six in the lower half of compartment 2. The lower right 


48 


hand end of it will begin at the lower end of down stroke number 
two and the upper left end of it will touch downstroke number one 
at the point where the middle line crosses it. 

d. From the point where the above stroke touches principle eight con¬ 
struct a horizontal stroke rightward across down stroke number two. 
Step (c) and step (d) will form a small loop almost horizontal. 

“K” lesson. 

1. Exercise number two and the wave exercise made one space tall. 

2. a. Construction number one two spaces tall. 

b. As instep (b) of letter “H.” 

c. Find the diagonal middle of the upper half of compartment two. 
From this point construct a principle three ^ a space tall to the top 
of down stroke number two. From the point where the middle line 
crosses the principle eight construct a principle two a space tall the 
diagonal center. 

d. As instep (e) of letter “R.” 

e. As in step (f) of letter “R.” 

f. Omit down stroke number two. 

“S” lesson. 

1. Exercise number three and the small letter "s” may be used as an 

exercise. 

2. a. Construction number one two spaces tall. 

b. In the upper half of compartment number 2 place principle six 
allowing it to overlap into the part below. 

c. Bisect the baseline of compartment number 1. 

d. Bisect the headline of compartment number 2. From the bisecting 
dot in compartment 1 to the bisecting dot in compartment 2 construct 
a principle two two spaces tall. 

e. Place a dot about 1-3 of a space up from the bottom on the principle 
two just erected. From the point where the principle two crosses the 
left side of the oval to the point just placed construct a reverse 
principle two as described in step (c) of letter “s.” 

f. The end may be brought leftward and finished like the “B” if desired. 

g. Omit all straight down strokes and the right side of principle six. 

“G” lesson. 

1. As in letter “S.” 

2. a. As instep (a) of letter “S.” 

b. As instep (b) of letter “S.” 

c. As instep (c) of letter “S.” 

d. As in step (d) of letter “S.” 

e. Place a dot about 1-3 of a space up from the bottom on principle 
two just erected. 

f. Place a dot about half way up on the right side of principle six from 
from this dot to the dot in principle two construct a reverse principle 
two as in step (c) of letter “s.” It may finish as the letter “S.” 


49 


g. Omit all straight down strokes and the upper right quarter of the oval j 

“Q” lesson. 

1. Exercise number five indirect and the wave exercise. 

2. a. Construction number one two spaces tall. 

b. On down stroke number one place principle seven In placing ih s 
principle it will virtually be placed in compartment number t o | 
It touches the down stroke twice. 

c. At the lower end of the principle seven place the horizontal wave £• ' 1 
described in letter “L.” A small loop will be formed. It is oMique. 1 

d. Omit all straight down strokes. 

“X” lesson. 

1. Exercise number five indirect and direct. 

2. a. Construction number one two spaces tall. 

b. As in step (b) of letter “Q.” 

c. Using down stroke number two as the long axis of an oval construct 
principle six direct. Principle six should be tangent to principle seven. 

d. Omit all straight down strokes and also the upper right hand quarter 
of principle six. 


“Z” lesson. 

1. Exercise number five indirect. 

2. a. Construction number one two spaces tall. 

b. As in step (b) of letter “Q.” 

c. Bisect the baseline of compartment number two From this bisecting! 
dot construct principle one one space tall downward. Repeat step (b) 
of letter “z.” 

d. From the lower end of principle seven make a low arc (the right ^ 
end of which) will rest in the top of the oval below the line. 

A small loop will be formed between principle seven and the arc. 

e. Repeat step (d) of letter “z.” 

f. Omit all straight down strokes. 


50 


A list of Words Suitable for Practice. 


“e” 

T “n” 

m 

“v” 

“x” 

wee 

new 

men 

vim 

vex 

we 

wine 

mine 

vein 

vixen 

ewe 

win 

mien 

view 

mix 


nun 

menu 

vine 

nux 



emu 

vive 

nix 

“a” 

“o” 

“c” 

“r” 

“s” 

axe 

amo 

coax 

rice 

roses 

wax 

moan 

cow 

race 

score 

wane 

woe 

caw 

care 

scare 

man 

won 

cocoa 

crow 

raise 

van 

mow 

coon 

crown 

sir 


“d” 

V 

‘T* 

“b” 

trees 

tide 

deep 

pile 

bulb 

wrist 

dart 

drip 

lapse 

build 

towns 

dust 

drop 

pearl 

broil 

vast 

dirt 

pen 

split 

bawl 

waste 

dad 

poem 

place 

bubble 

“h” 

“k” 

_ T 

V 

“g” 

hub 

hike 

joke 

jay 

gay 

hobo 

khaki 

jack 

joy 

gaily 

head 

brick 

juice 

juicy 

guy 

habit 

chalk 

jerk 

jelly 

young 

breath 

blank 

just 

yes 

giggle 

“q” 

“f” 

“z” 


U 

quag 

quaff 

fuzz 


Ionia 

quay- 

fancy 

freeze 


Iva 

quagmire 

flog 

froze 


Indiana 

queue 

fair 

frenzy 


Illinois 

quack 

forest 

zero 


Irish 

“U” 

“W” 

“E” 

“N” 

“M” 

Unum 

Winnow 

Even 

Newman 

Mamma 

Union 

Willow 

Ease 

Noon 

Moon 

United 

Wigwam 

Eraser 

Norman 

Monument 

Usual 

Window 

Erie 

Nonesense 

Museum 

Uraguay 

Warsaw 

Eaves 

Nation 

Mormon 

“V” 

“X” 

“A” 

“cr 

“C” 

Vivian 

Xenia 

Anna 

Omen 

Cocoa 

Valve 

Xerxes 

Alaska 

Ohio 

Cactus 

Vivid 

Xebec 

America 

Ontario 

Cocaine 

Vesuvius 


Armenia 

Otto 

Cadillac 

Velvet 


Alabama 

Octopus 

Cascade 


51 


“R” 

River 

Rumor 

Robert 

Ranger 

Rooster 

“L" 

Lillian 

Llama 

Little 

Lloyd 

Lola 

«Y” 

Yule 

Yesterday 

Yearly 

Yale 

Youth 


Sesame 

Success 

Session 

Scissors 

System 

“B” 

Bamboo 

Bubble 

Bobolink 

Babylon 

Babboon 

“G” 

George 

Georgia 

Gregory 

Granger 

Gauge 


Totem 

Tantrum 

Turtle 

Tent 

Tooter 

“H” 

Hurrah 

Helen 

Heathen 

Hallelujah 

Heather 

“Q” 

Quagmire 

Queen 

Quail 

Quince 

Quill 


“D” 

Dundee 

Dumdum 

Dandelion 

Diamond 

Dandy 

‘K‘” 

Khaki 

Kankekee 

Kokomo 

Kodak 

Kentucky 

“F” 

Fife 

Fifty 

Fluffy 

France 

Faith 


Puppy 

Paper 

Pepper 

Plump 

Pope 

Joujou 
Jim jams 
Jungle 
July 
Jollity 

“Z” 

Zeus 

Zion 

Zebra 

Zebu 

Zulu 




52 


FIGURES 


There is no context in figures and consequently they must at all times 
be made well in order to avoid misunderstandings. In commercial life it 
is also very essential that they be well formed and accurately made so that 
there will be no chance of forgery. Poorly written figures can be more 
readily changed than well made characters. The size of the figures does 
not depend very much upon the letters but varies according to the space in 
which they must be written. The space that is alloted to figures in most cases 
is very small, and consequently the figures are small also. It is difficult ta 
arrange figures in columns when vertical lines are not printed. When lines 
are not printed a column is procured by placing the top of the figures under 
each other. In writing figures, especially, when they are very small, it is 
necessary to use finger movement 


99 

1. a. Construction number one two spaces tall. 

b. Figure “1” is simply principle one with a slight pressure at the top 
or bottom, preferbly at the top. 

C. Reduce to the size that is wanted. This will pertain to all figures. 

“ 4 »> 

1. a. Construction number one two spaces tall. 

b. On down stroke number one place a dot one half a space from the 
bottom. 

c. From this dot draw a wave across the compartment two and about 
one third across compartment three. 

d. Omit the part of down stroke one below the dot. Retrace to count. 

<1*J99 

1. a. Construction number one two spaces tall. 

b. On the headline of compartment number one place a dot one third of 
the width of a compartment away from the left end of the compart¬ 
ment. 

c. From this dot draw a wave that will join down stroke number one at 
the top at a point. The wave may begin with a little dot. 

d. Retrace to count. 

“ 6 ” 

1. a. Construction number one two spaces tall. 

b. In compartment number two just a trifle to the right of down stroke 
number one place a small principle six one half a space tall. 

c. Connect the down stroke with the oval to the right by a slightly curved 
line which connects gradually with the underside of the oval. 

d. Retrace to count. 


53 


“ 9 ” 

1. a. Construction number one two spaces tall. 

b. In the upper half of compartment number one place principle two one 
space tall. 

c. In the upper half of compartment number one also place principle 
three reversed as in the small letter “a.” 

d. Retrace to count. 

“ 2 ” 

1. a. Construction number one two spaces tall. 

b. On down stroke number one place principle; seven. 

c. On down stroke number two place a dot two thirds of a space up 
from the bottom. From the bottom of principle seven to the dot 
draw principle three. A little loop, oblique, will thus be formed be¬ 
tween principles seven and three. If desired a straight line may be 
substituted for principle three. 

d. Omit all straight down strokes. Retrace to count. 


1. a. Construction number one two spaces tall. 

b. On down stroke number one place a dot a little less than one half 
the distance down from the top. 

c. On down stroke number one also place principle seven so that it 
begins not higher up than the dot just placed. Continue the lower 
part of principle seven half a compartment and upward half a space 
as in figure “5.” 

d. Between the dot and the top of the downstroke place a small principle 
seven. The lower end of the top principle seven and the upper part 
of the lower principle seven will form a small loop. 

e. Omit all straight down strokes. Retrace to count. 

“ 5 ” 

1. a. Construction number one two spaces tall. 

b. On down stroke number one place a dot one third of the distance 
down from the top. 

c. On the same down stroke place principle seven so that it begins not 
higher up than the dot. Principle seven will consequently not be 
full two spaces tall. Continue the lower part of principle seven left¬ 
ward half a compartment and upward half a space into compartment 
one. 

d. To the toj> of down stroke number one on the headline add either 
a straight line or a small wave or a swing about one half a compart¬ 
ment in length to the right. 

<e. Omit down stroke number two and also the part of down stroke 
number one below the dot. Retrace to count. In retracing the pen 
or pencil is lifted and the wave at the top is made last. 


54 


1. a. Construction number one two spaces tall. 

b. Place principle six in the upper half of compartment number two and 
also in the lower half. 

c. Draw the long axes of thesei two ovals. Naturally the axes will form 
one straight line which is parallel to the principle one. 

d. Omit down strokes one and two and the right side of the upper oval 
and the left side of the lower oval. Retrace to count. In retracing 
commence at the top passing down on the curved line, counter clock¬ 
wise, crossing the straight stroke half way down. Come up on the 
straight stroke. At the top of the straight stroke! a short principle one 
should be added. 


55 

I 

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